BIOENERGY

  1. For a description of the various bioenergy options and their maturity, see, for example, International Energy Agency (IEA), Energy Technology Perspectives 2017 (Paris: 2017); for advanced biofuels, see International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), Innovation Outlook: Advanced Liquid Biofuels (Abu Dhabi: 2016), http://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2016/IRENA_Innovation_Outlook_Advanced_Liquid_Biofuels_2016.pdf.1
  2. Total final energy consumption in 2016 (estimated at 362.3 EJ) is based on 357.9 EJ for 2015 from IEA, World Energy Statistics and Balances, 2017 edition (Paris: 2017), https://webstore.iea.org/world-energy-statistics-and-balances, and escalated by the 1.24% increase in estimated global total final consumption (including non-energy use) from 2015 to 2016, derived from IEA, World Energy Outlook, 2017 edition (Paris: 2017), https://www.iea.org/weo2017/. Estimate of traditional biomass from idem. Modern bioenergy for heat based on 2015 values from IEA, World Energy Statistics and Balances, op. cit. this note, and escalated to 2016 based on growth rates from IEA, Renewables 2017 (Paris: 2017), p. 124, https://www.iea.org/publications/renewables2017/. Biofuels used in transport in 2016 from note 54 in this section. Bioelectricity consumption based on estimates of 2016 generation from idem, and global average electricity losses and estimated technology-specific industry own-use of bioelectricity in 2016 (estimated 15.5% of generation), based on IEA, World Energy Statistics and Balances, op. cit. this note. 2
  3. Ibid. Figure 16 from idem, all references. 3
  4. IEA, Technology Roadmap: Delivering Sustainable Bioenergy (Paris: 2017), http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/Technology_Roadmap_Delivering_Sustainable_Bioenergy.pdf. IRENA, “REmap – Renewable Energy Roadmaps”, http://irena.org/remap/.4
  5. Bioenergy is considered to be sustainable when its use reduces greenhouse gas emissions compared to the use of fossils fuels in the applications where it is used, and where its use avoids significant negative environmental, social or economic impacts and plays a positive role in the achievement of sustainable development objectives, from IEA, op. cit. note 4, p. 48. A detailed assessment of the main sustainability issues associated with bioenergy has been carried out by the Global Bioenergy Partnership, which has produced a set of 24 indicators and related assessment methodologies that cover the main potential impacts under the environmental and economic pillars of sustainability that have gained consensus among a wide range of stakeholders, from GBEP, The Global Bioenergy Partnership: Sustainability Indicators for Bioenergy (Rome: United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 2011), http://www.globalbioenergy.org/programmeofwork/task-force-on-sustainability/gbep-report-on-sustainability-indicators-for-bioenergy/en. These indicators are complemented by a number of sustainability standards and certification schemes including the ISO standard ISO 13065:2015 “Sustainability criteria for bioenergy”, from International Organization for Standardization, ISO 13065:2015 Sustainability Criteria for Bioenergy (Geneva: 2015), www.iso.org/standard/52528.html). In 2017 a joint paper produced by IRENA, IEA Bioenergy and the FAO highlighted the important role that bioenergy can play in meeting the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. IRENA, IEA Bioenergy and FAO, Bioenergy for Sustainable Development (Paris: 2017), http://www.ieabioenergy.com/publications/bioenergy-for-sustainable-development/.5
  6. The BioFuture Platform is an international initiative launched in 2017 by the Government of Brazil that now involves 20 countries: Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Denmark, Egypt, Finland, France, India, Indonesia, Italy, Morocco, Mozambique, the Netherlands, Paraguay, the Philippines, Sweden, the United Kingdom, the United States and Uruguay. The initiative is a country-led, multi-stakeholder mechanism for policy dialogue and collaboration among leading countries, organisations, academia and the private sector, from BioFuture Platform, “About”, www.biofutureplatform.org, viewed 4 April 2018. Mission Innovation is a global initiative involving 22 countries and the EU that aims to dramatically accelerate global clean energy innovation, and includes a commitment by participating countries to double government spending on clean energy research and development investments over five years, while encouraging greater levels of private sector investment in transformative clean energy technologies. Within this initiative, seven specific technology challenges have been identified, including a Sustainable Biofuels Innovation Challenge to develop ways to produce at scale widely affordable advanced biofuels for transport and industrial applications. This Challenge is co-led by Brazil, Canada, Chile, China and India, with Australia, the European Commission, Finland, France, Indonesia, Italy, Mexico, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the United States, from Mission Innovation, “Sustainable Biofuels Challenge”, http://mission-innovation.net/our-work/innovation-challenges/sustainable-biofuels-challenge/, viewed 4 April 2018. 6
  7. Erin Voegele, “Brazil establishes national biofuels policy”, Biomass Magazine, 2 January 2018, http://biomassmagazine.com/articles/14948/brazil-establishes-national-biofuels-policy.7
  8. Sandeep Poundrik, Indian Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, “Transport & renewable energy policies in India”, presentation at Joint EU/India Advanced Biofuels Conference, New Delhi, 7 March 2018, https://ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/ener/files/documents/3_sandeep_poundrik-mpng.pdf.8
  9. The proposed revision to the EU’s Renewable Energy Directive involves constraining the role of “conventional biofuels” (principally ethanol and biodiesel) from crops that also could be used as food (such as wheat, maize, sugar and oil crops such as palm oil and canola) and encouraging the uptake of fuels produced from residues and wastes. In the latest stage of the discussions the European Parliament has decided that conventional biofuels should be capped at 7% of transport fuel requirements, and that fuels based on palm oil should be phased out by 2021. There also will be an overall requirement that 12% of transport fuels come from renewable sources, with an emphasis on fuels produced from wastes and residues, including a mandatory provision of 3.6% of advanced biofuels by 2030, along with an effort to promote electrification of transport. The discussion was to continue between the Parliament, the Council of Ministers and the European Commission, with a final decision expected in late 2018. See European Union, Briefing: Promoting Renewable Energy Sources in the EU After 2020 (Brussels: 2018), http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2017/599278/EPRS_BRI(2017)599278_EN.pdf. Erin, Voegele, “MEPs approve renewable energy, biofuel targets under RED II”, Biomass Magazine, 17 January 2018, http://biomassmagazine.com/articles/14984/meps-approve-renewable-energy-biofuel-targets-under-red-ii. The continuing discussion and policy uncertainty has been seen by industry as damaging the prospects for investment, from Samuel White, “Commission’s biofuels proposal may kill future investment, industry warns”, Euractiv, 28 November 2017, https://www.euractiv.com/section/agriculture-food/news/capping-biofuels-may-kill-future-investment-industry-warns/; Sarantis Michalopoulos, “EU Parliament ends palm oil and caps crop-based biofuels at 2017 levels”, We All Deserve Better, 27 January 2018, https://wealldeservebetter.wordpress.com/2018/01/27/eu-parliament-ends-palm-oil-and-caps-crop-based-biofuels-at-2017-levels/.9
  10. Michael McAdams, “The RFS in 2017: a brave new world”, Biomass Magazine, 22 February 2017, http://biomassmagazine.com/articles/14208/the-rfs-in-2017-a-brave-new-world.10
  11. IEA, op. cit. note 1, p. 14. 11
  12. IEA, World Energy Statistics and Balances, op. cit. note 2; IEA, World Energy Outlook 2017, op. cit. note 2. Estimates of traditional biomass use vary widely, given the difficulties of measuring or even estimating a resource that often is traded informally. For example, one source suggests that the national databases on which the IEA statistics rely systematically underestimate fuelwood consumption, and applied a supplement of 20-40% to these estimates based on country-specific analyses in over 20 countries, from Helena Chum et al., “Bioenergy”, in Ottmar Edenhofer et al., eds., Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation (Cambridge, UK and New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2011), pp. 216-217, http://www.ipcc.ch/report/srren/. 12
  13. IEA, World Energy Statistics and Balances, op. cit. note 2; IEA, World Energy Outlook 2017, op. cit. note 2.13
  14. Ibid., both sources..14
  15. Ibid., both sources. 15
  16. Ibid., both sources.16
  17. Estimate assumes the same percent increase in capacity between 2014 and 2017 as for modern heat generation (2%), applied to the 2014 biomass heat capacity data from GSR 2015. 17
  18. Each EU member state is obligated under the Renewable Energy Directive to develop renewable energy to meet a mandatory national target for 2020 for the share of renewables in final energy consumption. To achieve this, each country has prepared a National Renewable Energy Action Plan that includes measures to promote renewable heat, leading to growing efforts to encourage renewable heating, which comes primarily from biomass. 18
  19. Figure 17 based on analysis of data to 2016 in Eurostat’s SHARES database, for the heat produced from bioenergy (including the renewable fraction of MSW) in each EU member state (except for Greece for which no data are provided), from Eurostat, “SHARES (Renewables)”, http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/energy/data/shares, viewed 4 April 2018. 19
  20. Ibid. A small contribution (0.5%) of the heat is produced from bioliquids.20
  21. Ibid.21
  22. Ibid.22
  23. Ibid. The UK Renewable Heat Incentive (RHI) is a government financial incentive that provides revenue support to promote the use of renewable heat and to help the United Kingdom reduce its carbon emissions and meet its renewable energy targets. The RHI has two separate schemes: Domestic (for household heating) and Non-Domestic (for public, commercial and industrial applicants and with separate tariffs, joining conditions, rules and application processes). See Ofgem, “Domestic Renewable Heat Incentive”, https://www.ofgem.gov.uk/environmental-programmes/domestic-rhi, viewed 4 April 2018, and Ofgem, “About the Non-Domestic RHI”, https://www.ofgem.gov.uk/environmental-programmes/non-domestic-rhi/about-non-domestic-rhi, viewed 4 April 2018.23
  24. IEA, World Energy Statistics and Balances, op. cit. note 2.24
  25. Ibid. Note that a range of biomass and waste fuels is used in processes such as cement manufacturing. Some of these materials are of biogenic origin, but other materials originating from fossil sources are also used and should not be included in estimates of renewable fuel use.25
  26. IEA, Renewables 2017, op. cit. note 2, p. 126.26
  27. Ibid., p. 126. The IEA shows data for Brazil bioenergy use in industry for 2015 and 2016 at 33 Mtoe (1.4 EJ), and this is assumed to remain constant in 2017, from IEA, World Energy Outlook, op. cit. note 2, p. 664.27
  28. IEA, Renewables 2017, op. cit. note 2, p. 126.28
  29. IEA data indicate that the use of bioenergy in industry in the United States declined 17% between 2000 and 2015, from IEA, World Energy Outlook 2017, op. cit. note 2, p. 656.29
  30. IEA, Renewables 2017, op. cit. note 2, p. 126.30
  31. “Biomass will help solve China’s winter heating crisis”, Bioenergy Insight, https://www.bioenergy-news.com/display_news/13276/biomass_will_help_solve_chinas_winter_heating_crisis/, updated 18 December 2017.31
  32. William Strauss and Seth Walker, “Global pellet market outlook in 2018”, Canadian Biomass, 1 February 2018, https://www.canadianbiomassmagazine.ca/pellets/increasing-demand-6705?custnum=&title=&utm_source=&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign.32
  33. Ibid. 33
  34. Overall bioelectricity capacity is based on national data from the following: United States from US Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), Office of Energy Projects, “Energy Infrastructure Update for December 2017” (Washington, DC: 2017); Germany from Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Energie (BMWi), Zeitreihen zur Entwicklung der erneuerbaren Energien in Deutschland unter Verwendung von Daten der Arbeitsgruppe Erneuerbare Energien-Statistik (AGEEStat) (Stand: Februar 2018) (Berlin: March 2018), Table 4, https://www.erneuerbare-energien.de/EE/Navigation/DE/Service/Erneuerbare_Energien_in_Zahlen/Zeitreihen/zeitreihen.html; United Kingdom from UK Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy, “Energy Trends: Renewables, Section 6”, Table 6.1, updated 29 March 2018, https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/energy-trends-section-6-renewables; India from Government of India, Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), “Physical progress (achievements)”, 2015 and 2016, http://164.100.94.214/physical-progress-achievements, viewed 4 March 2018; China from China National Energy Administration (NEA), “National Energy Administration press conference introduces related energy situation, etc.”, 24 January 2018, http://www.nea.gov.cn/2018-01/24/c_136921015.htm (using Google Translate). Data for other countries are based on forecast 2017 capacity figures from IEA, Renewables 2017, op. cit. note 2.34
  35. Bioelectricity capacity and generation do not always grow proportionately. If new capacity is added late in the year it does not fully contribute to that year’s generation, so capacity can grow faster than generation in that year. In the following year, generation growth can then exceed that for capacity. By contrast, when growth in generation is due to co-firing of biomass (usually with coal), the co-firing capacity often is not recorded and the capacity data relate only to dedicated generation. In that case, generation may rise much faster than reported capacity. Bioelectricity generation is based on national data from the following sources: United States from US Energy Information Administration (EIA), Electric Power Monthly with Data for December 2017 (Washington, DC: February 2018), Table 1.1a, https://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly/archive/february2018.pdf, corrected for difference between net and gross electricity generation; Germany from BMWi, op. cit. note 34, Table 3; United Kingdom from UK Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy, op. cit. note 34, Table 6.1; China from NEA, op. cit. note 34. Data for other countries are based on forecast 2017 generation figures from IEA, Renewables 2017, op. cit. note 2.35
  36. Figure 18 based on analysis conducted using historical REN21 data for years to 2015, and on analysis of national data from the following sources: United States from EIA, op. cit. note 35, Table 1.1a, corrected for difference between net and gross electricity generation; Germany from BMWi, op. cit. note 34, Table 3; United Kingdom from UK Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy, op. cit. note 34, Table 6.1; China from NEA, op. cit. note 34. Data for other countries are based on forecast 2017 generation figures from IEA, Renewables 2017, op. cit. note 2.36
  37. European Commission, “Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources and amending and subsequently repealing Directives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC” (Brussels: 2009), http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:32009L0028.37
  38. BMWi, op. cit. note 34, Table 4.38
  39. Ibid., Table 3.39
  40. UK Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy, op. cit. note 34, Table 6.1; data for 2017 are still subject to revision, notably for combustible bioenergy sources such as landfill gas.40
  41. Ibid.41
  42. IEA, Renewables 2017, op. cit. note 2, data files.42
  43. NEA, op. cit. note 34.43
  44. IEA, Renewables 2017, op. cit. note 2, p. 42.44
  45. Ibid., p. 42.45
  46. EIA, op. cit. note 35, Table 1.1a, corrected for difference between net and gross electricity generation.46
  47. US capacity data from FERC, op. cit. note 34. However, EIA data show a year-end total of 14.2 GW, with capacity increasing by 171 MW during 2017, from EIA, op. cit. note 43, Table 6.1. The FERC number has been used for consistency with previous editions of the GSR.47
  48. Brazil Ministério de Minas e Energia, Anuário Estatistico 2017, Empresa de Pesquisa Energética (Rio de Janeiro: EPE, 2017), http://www.epe.gov.br/sites-pt/publicacoes-dados-abertos/publicacoes/PublicacoesArquivos/publicacao-160/topico-168/Anuario2017vf.pdf.48
  49. Ibid.49
  50. Japan Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, “Present status and promotion measures for the introduction of renewable energy in Japan”, http://www.meti.go.jp/english/policy/energy_environment/renewable/, viewed 4 April 2018. 50
  51. IEA, Renewables 2017, op. cit. note 2, data files.51
  52. Government of India, MNRE, “Physical progress (achievements)”, https://mnre.gov.in/physical-progress-achievements, accessed 30 January 2018; IEA, Renewables 2017, op. cit. note 2, data files.52
  53. IEA, op. cit. note 3.53
  54. Based on biofuels data in IEA, Oil Market Report 2018 (Paris: 2018), https://webstore.iea.org/market-report-series-oil-2018, supplemented by national data as referenced below.54
  55. Ibid.55
  56. Ibid. Volumes of fuel converted to energy content using conversion factors from US Department of Energy (DOE), Alternative Fuels Data Centre, https://www.afdc.energy.gov/, viewed 4 April 2018. Lower caloric value for ethanol 76,330 Btu/US gallon (21.27 MJ/litre) and for biodiesel 119,550 Btu/US gallon (3.32 MJ/litre). Caloric value for HVO 34.4 MJ/litre, from Neste, Neste Renewable Diesel Handbook (Espoo, Finland: 2016), p. 15, https://www.neste.com/sites/default/files/attachments/neste_renewable_diesel_handbook.pdf. Figure 19 based on biofuels data in IEA, op. cit. note 54, supplemented by national data as referenced below.56
  57. Biomethane is produced for use in transport and in heating and electricity production, often through injection into natural gas grids. It is difficult to split out the production destined for use in the transport sector, but figures are available for consumption in the transport sector in the major markets. Global biomethane use for transport is concentrated in the United States (estimated total consumption 17.4 PJ) and in the EU (estimated use of 6.1 PJ in 2016, 12% more than in 2015, with 2017 consumption of 6.8 PJ if this trend continued), bringing estimated global consumption to 24.2 PJ, or some 0.7% of global biofuels production.57
  58. Ethanol data based on IEA, op, cit. note 54, pp. 133-134, except for production data for United States (See endnote 61), Brazil (See endnote 64), Canada (See endnote 66), China (See endnote 66) and Thailand (See endnote 66). 58
  59. Ibid.59
  60. Ibid.60
  61. EIA, “Monthly Energy Review, April 2018” (Washington, DC: 26 April 2018), Table 10.3, https://www.eia.gov/totalenergy/data/monthly/#renewable.61
  62. Emily Druckman, “It’s official – ethanol production and blending set new records in 2017”, Renewable Fuels Association (RFA), 2 March 2018, http://www.ethanolrfa.org/2018/03/official-ethanol-production-blending-set-new-records-2017/. 62
  63. Emily Druckman, “New RFA report confirms record exports of 1.37 billion gallons in 2017”, RFA, 6 February 2018, http://www.ethanolrfa.org/2018/02/new-rfa-report-confirms-record-ethanol-exports-1-37-billion-gallons-2017/.63
  64. Agencia Nacional do Petroleo, Gas Natural e Biocombustiveis, “Dados estatísticos”, http://www.anp.gov.br/dados-estatisticos, viewed 27 April 2018.64
  65. EIA, “Petroleum and other liquids, US imports by country of origin, fuel ethanol (renewable)”, https://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/pet_move_impcus_a2_nus_epooxe_im0_mbbl_m.htm, viewed 11 May 2018.65
  66. RFA, “Industry statistics 2017: World fuel ethanol production”, http://www.ethanolrfa.org/resources/industry/statistics/, viewed 4 April 2018.66
  67. US Department of Agriculture (USDA) Foreign Agricultural Service, China Biofuels Annual Report: Growing Interest for Ethanol Brightens Prospects (Beijing: 20 October 2017), https://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/Biofuels%20Annual_Beijing_China%20-%20Peoples%20Republic%20of_10-20-2017.pdf. 67
  68. Ibid. 68
  69. RFA, op. cit. note 66.69
  70. Ibid.70
  71. “US ethanol exports to china poised to collapse with 30% tariff”, Biofuels International, 1 February 2017, http://biofuels-news.com/display_news/11796/us_ethanol_exports_to_china_poised_to_collapse_with_30_tariff/; Agrodaily, “Chinese ethanol drive to boost imports of the biofuel”, 1 November 2017, http://agrodaily.com/2017/11/01/chinese-ethanol-drive-to-boost-imports-of-the-biofuel/.71
  72. “Brazil approves quota 20 percent tax on ethanol-imports”, Reuters, 24 August 2017, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-brazil-ethanol-taxation/brazil-approves-quota-20-percent-tax-on-ethanol-imports-idUSKCN1B32PN. 72
  73. IEA, op. cit. note 54, p. 134.73
  74. Ibid., p. 134.74
  75. EIA, op. cit. note 61, Table 10.4.75
  76. Agencia Nacional do Petroleo, Gas Natural e Biocombustiveis, op. cit. note 64, updated 5 October 2016. Law No. 13,263 of 23 March 2016 determined that the mix of biodiesel in transport fuels would rise to 8% (B8) by March 2017, to 9% (B9) by March 2018 and to 10% (B10) by March 2019. This bill also authorised the National Energy Policy Council (CNPE) to increase the mandatory mix to up to 15% if tests validate the use of this mixture in vehicles and engines. In November 2017, the CNPE brought forward the move to a 10% (B10) blend to 1 March 2018, after an extensive testing regime, from Brazil’s Ministry of Mines and Energy, personal communication with REN21, 21 February 2018.76
  77. IEA, op. cit. note 54, p. 134.77
  78. Argentine Ministry of Energy and Mines, “Energy Market Statistics”, resumen biodiesel, www.energia.gob.ar/contenidos/archivos/Reorganizacion/informacion_del_mercado/mercado/hidrocarburos/bio/estadisticas_biocombustibles.xls, viewed 29 April 2018; Indonesia from IEA, op. cit. note 54, p. 134.78
  79. Jennifer Dlouhy and Mario Parker, “US moves impose import duties biodiesel Argentina and Indonesia”, Farm Futures, 31 October 2017, http://www.farmfutures.com/energy/us-moves-impose-import-duties-biodiesel-argentina-and-indonesia; S&P Global Platts, “US import tariff could create nightmare for Argentinian biodiesel”, 17 April 2017, http://blogs.platts.com/2017/04/17/us-import-tariff-argentinea-biodiesel/.79
  80. Philip Blenkinsop, “EU scraps duty on most Argentina and Indonesia-biodiesel”, Reuters, 21 March 2018, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-eu-biodiesel-argentina-indonesia/eu-scraps-duty-on-most-argentina-indonesia-biodiesel-document-idUSKBN1GX1RD.80
  81. Based on analysis of production capacity in major producers. 81
  82. Comprehensive figures on HVO production for 2017 are not yet available. Estimate of 10% growth in production is based on a review of the production increases for some of the major producers of HVO/HEFA. For example, at Neste, the largest producer, production increased from 88% to 98% of its production capacity of 2.6 million tonnes during 2017, from Neste, Neste Annual Reports for 2016 and 2017 (Helsinki: 2018), https://www.neste.com/en/corporate-info/news-media/material-uploads/annual-reports-0.82
  83. Based on data in US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), “RIN generation and renewable fuel volume production by fuel type from January 2017”, https://www.epa.gov/fuels-registration-reporting-and-compliance-help/spreadsheet-rin-generation-and-renewable-fuel-0, updated February 2018. 83
  84. Ibid. 84
  85. Eurostat, op. cit. note 19; IEA, Bioenergy Task 37 (Biogas) Country Reports 2017 (Paris: 2017), task37.ieabioenergy.com/country_reports.html.85
  86. Ibid., both sources..86
  87. Ibid., both sources..87
  88. IEA, op. cit. note 3.88
  89. Sunbird Bioenergy Africa, “Biomass power plant 32 MW performance trial successfully completed”, press release (Freetown: Sierra Leone: 14 March 2017), http://www.sunbirdbioenergy.com/2017/03/13/biomass-power-32mw-performance-test/. 89
  90. “$61 million biomass plant opened in Mexico”, Bioenergy Insight, 28 February 2018, https://www.bioenergy-news.com/display_news/13479/61_million_biomass_plant_opened_in_mexico/. 90
  91. “Rice husk-fuelled biomass project launched in Myanmar”, Bioenergy Insight, 8 November 2017, https://www.bioenergy-news.com/display_news/13096/rice_huskfuelled_biomass_project_launched_in_myanmar. 91
  92. MSW contains a significant proportion of biomass materials (food wastes, used wood, etc.), and the energy produced from this part of the fuel is usually considered part of renewable energy production. The proportion varies according to the waste composition, but a value of 50% is often used as a default value for the renewable content. Using waste in this way is often stimulated by the need to improve waste management practice, reducing the volumes of waste going to landfill. In Europe the use of waste as energy has been stimulated by the EC Landfill Directive which mandates reductions in the amount of waste going to landfill. Given the potentially toxic nature of the flue gases from such fuels, plants using wastes must have pollution control systems that ensure the highest standards of emission control. 92
  93. “Ethiopia presses ahead with waste-to-energy plant plans”, Bioenergy Insight, 20 November 2017, https://www.bioenergy-news.com/display_news/13156/ethiopia_presses_ahead_with_wastetoenergy_plant_plans/. 93
  94. “Suez begins construction work on its first waste-to-energy project in Southeast Asia”, Bioenergy Insight, 28 November 2017, https://www.bioenergy-news.com/display_news/13201/suez_begins_construction_work_on_its_first_wastetoenergy_project_in_southeast_asia/.94
  95. Strauss and Walker, op. cit. note 32.95
  96. Ibid.96
  97. “New 92MW biomass plant opens in Helsinki”, Bioenergy Insight, 20 February 2018, https://www.bioenergy-news.com/display_news/13455/new_92mw_biomass_plant_opens_in_helsinki/. 97
  98. Strauss and Walker, op. cit. note 32.98
  99. Ibid.99
  100. “Drax presses ahead with biomass plans”, Bioenergy Insight, 29 July 2017, https://www.bioenergy-news.com/display_news/12625/drax_presses_ahead_with_biomass_plans. Drax operated the largest coal-fired generation plant in the United Kingdom with six 66O MW generating units and a total capacity of 4 GW; the company has been progressively converting these scale units to operate entirely in biomass fuels, principally wood pellets. 100
  101. “New Drax wood pellet facility starts production”, Bioenergy Insight, 1 December 2017, https://www.bioenergy-news.com/display_news/13224/new_drax_wood_pellet_facility_starts_production/. 101
  102. Strauss and Walker, op. cit. note 32.102
  103. Ibid. 103
  104. “Japan prepares for biomass power plant surge and increases imports of wood chips”, Bioenergy Insight, 27 February 2017, https://www.bioenergy-news.com/display_news/11938/japan_prepares_for_biomass_power_plant_surge_and_increases_imports_of_wood_chips/. 104
  105. Yuka Obayashi, “Japan fires up biomass energy, but fuel shortage looms”, Reuters, 22 September 2017, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-japan-biomass/japan-fires-up-biomass-energy-but-fuel-shortage-looms-idUSKCN1BX0IT.105
  106. “Valmet to deliver multifuel boiler to Kushiro power plant in Japan”, Bioenergy Insight, 9 March 2017, https://www.bioenergy-news.com/display_news/11979/valmet_to_deliver_multifuel_boiler_to_kushiro_power_plant_in_japan/. 106
  107. “New shipyard biomass plant will use Andritz boiler”, Bioenergy Insight, 23 November 2017, https://www.bioenergy-news.com/display_news/13178/new_shipyard_biomass_plant_will_use_andritz_boiler/. 107
  108. “Toshiba unveils biomass power plant in Japan”, Bioenergy Insight, 28 April 2017, https://www.bioenergy-news.com/display_news/12226/toshiba_unveils_biomass_power_plant_in_japan/. 108
  109. “Japan prepares for biomass power plant surge and increases imports of wood chips”, Bioenergy Insight, 27 February 2017, https://www.bioenergy-news.com/display_news/11938/japan_prepares_for_biomass_power_plant_surge_and_increases_imports_of_wood_chips/. 109
  110. Bill Phillips, “Pacific Bioenergy welcomes Japanese partner”, Prince George Daily News, 23 October 2017, http://pgdailynews.ca/index.php/2017/10/23/pacific-bioenergy-welcomes-japanese-partner/. 110
  111. Ibid. 111
  112. “Sumitomo invests in biomass pellet production in Brazil”, Bioenergy Insight, 26 February 2016, https://www.bioenergy-news.com/display_news/10237/sumitomo_invests_in_biomass_pellet_production_in_brazil/. 112
  113. EIA, “Monthly Densified Fuel Report”, 20 March 2018, https://www.eia.gov/biofuels/biomass/#table_data. 113
  114. Ibid.114
  115. Ibid. 115
  116. John Bingham, “The global outlook for wood pellet markets”, presentation at Wood Pellet Association of Canada (WPAC) Annual Conference, Harrison Hot Springs, BC, Canada, 20 September 2016, https://www.pellet.org/wpac-agm/images/2016/JohnBingham-The-global-outlook-for-wood-pellet-markets.pdf; WPAC, Global Pellet Outlook 2017 (Revelstoke, BC: 2017), https://www.pellet.org/wpac-news/global-pellet-market-outlook-in-2017.116
  117. Erin Voegele, “Brazil establishes national biofuels policy”, Biomass Magazine, 2 January 2018, http://biomassmagazine.com/articles/14948/brazil-establishes-national-biofuels-policy; McAdams, op. cit. note 10.117
  118. White, op. cit. note 9. 118
  119. USDA Foreign Agricultural Service, India: Biofuels Annual Report (New Delhi: 2017), https://www.fas.usda.gov/data/india-biofuels-annual-1; USDA Foreign Agricultural Service, op. cit. note 67.119
  120. EIA, op. cit. note 61, Table 10.3. 120
  121. “Poet beefs up production at Ohio based ethanol facility”, Biofuels International, 15 August 2017, https://biofuels-news.com/display_news/12768/poet_beefs_up_production_at_ohiobased_bioethanol_facility/; Cargill, “Cargill to build state-of-the-art biodiesel plant in Wichita, Kansas”, press release (Minneapolis, MN: 21 September 2017), https://www.cargill.com/2017/cargill-to-build-state-of-the-art-biodiesel-plant-in-wichita-ks; “Word Energy and Biox complete commissioning of Houston biodiesel facility”, Biofuels International, 19 January 2017, https://biofuels-news.com/display_news/11707/world_energy_and_biox_complete_commissioning_of_houston_biodiesel_facility/. 121
  122. “115 million $ corn ethanol facility opens in Brazil”, Biofuels International, 16 August 2017, https://biofuels-news.com/display_news/12774/115_million_corn_ethanol_facility_opens_in_brazil/.122
  123. “UK’s largest ethanol plant offline for the foreseeable future”, Biofuels International, 5 December 2017, https://biofuels-news.com/display_news/13231/uks_largest_ethanol_plant offline_for_the_foreseeable_future/.123
  124. “Germany based biodiesel facility to stop production”, Biofuels International, 23 March 2018, https://biofuels-news.com/display_news/13541/germany_based_biodiesel_facility_to_stop_production/. 124
  125. Below 50 website, https://below50.org, viewed 4 April 2018. 125
  126. Ibid.126
  127. “Nigeria invests in new bioethanol plant as it diversifies away from oil”, Biofuels International, 24 November 2017, https://biofuels-news.com/display_news/13186/nigeria_invests_in_new_bioethanol_plant_as_it_diversifies_away_from_oil/. 127
  128. “Sunbird Bioenergy Africa launches cassava outgrower programme for bio ethanol project”, Biofuels International, 3 August 2017, https://biofuels-news.com/display_news/12705/sunbird_bioenergy_africa_launches_cassava_outgrower_programme_for_bioethanol_project/.128
  129. “US and Indonesia celebrate launch of Jakarta’s waste-to-bioethanol project”, Biofuels International, 21 April 2017, https://biofuels-news.com/display_news/12205/us_and_indonesia_celebrate_launch_of_jakarta_wastetobioethanol_project/. 129
  130. “St1 inks MoU for bioethanol project in Thailand”, Biofuels International, 25 January 2018, https://biofuels-news.com/display_news/11750/st1_inks_mou_for_bioethanol_project_in_thailand/.130
  131. IEA, op. cit. note 3. The aim of developing and commercialising advanced biofuels is: 1) to produce fuels that can provide more life-cycle carbon savings than some biofuels produced from sugar, starch and oils; 2) to produce fuels with less impact on land use (e.g., from wastes and residues), thereby reducing indirect land-use change impacts and also reducing competition for food or for productive agricultural land; and 3) to produce biofuels with properties that enable them to directly replace fossil fuels in advanced transport systems such as aviation engines, or to be blended in high proportions with conventional fuels (“drop-in biofuels”). 131
  132. Ibid.132
  133. See, for example, the description of a range of advanced biofuels value chains at European Biofuels Technology Platform, “The EIBI Value Chains”, http://biofuelstp.eu/eibi.html#valuechains, viewed 4 April 2018.133
  134. See New Zealand Institute of Chemistry, Tall Oil Production and Processing (Wellington, New Zealand: 1987), http://nzic.org.nz/ChemProcesses/forestry/4G.pdf. 134
  135. Neste Corporation, “Neste’s growth program for Renewable Products takes a step forward”, press release (Espoo, Finland: 16 December 2017), https://www.neste.com/en/nestes-growth-program-renewable-products-takes-step-forward.135
  136. UPM Biofuels, “UPM studies opportunities for developing its biofuels business by starting an environmental impact assessment in Kotka, Finland”, press release (Helsinki: 5 February 2018), http://www.upmbiofuels.com/whats-new/all-news/Pages/UPM-studies-opportunities-for-developing-its-biofuels-business-by-starting-an-en-001-Mon-05-Feb-2018-14-03.aspx.136
  137. Renewable Energy Group, Inc., “Completion of Geismar land purchase gives REG ability to optimize and potentially expand its renewable hydrocarbon diesel operations”, press release (Ames, IA: 20 June 2017), http://www.regi.com/news/2017/06/20/completion-of-geismar-land-purchase-gives-reg-ability-to-optimize-and-potentially-expand-its-renewable-hydrocarbon-diesel-operations. 137
  138. Meghan Sapp, “Valero and Darling looking at maybe doubling diamond green diesel production”, Biofuels Digest, 9 November 2017, http://www.biofuelsdigest.com/bdigest/2017/11/09/valero-and-darling-looking-at-maybe-doubling-diamond-green-diesel-production/. 138
  139. Based on analysis of data in US EPA, op. cit. note 83.139
  140. Meghan Sapp, “DowDuPont mothballs Nevada cellulosic ethanol plant as it looks for buyer”, Biofuels Digest, 2 November 2017, http://www.biofuelsdigest.com/bdigest/2017/11/02/dowdupont-mothballs-nevada-cellulosic-ethanol-plant-as-it-looks-for-buyer/; Meghan Sapp, “MG files for bankruptcy protection including Biochemtex and Beta Renewables”, Biofuels Digest, 1 November 2017, http://www.biofuelsdigest.com/bdigest/2017/11/01/mg-files-for-bankruptcy-protection-including-biochemtex-and-beta-renewables/. 140
  141. Joe Leahy, “Brazilian ethanol producer sees boost from plant waste”, Folha de S.Paulo, 7 March 2017, http://www1.folha.uol.com.br/internacional/en/business/2017/07/1898035-brazilian-ethanol-producer-sees-boost-from-plant-waste.shtml.141
  142. Poet, “Poet-DSM achieves cellulosic ethanol breakthrough”, press release (Sioux Falls, SD: 27 November 2017), https://poet.com/pr/poet-dsm-achieves-cellulosic-biofuel-breakthrough.142
  143. “US EPA gives green light for Flint Hills Resources Edeniq technology based ethanol plant”, Biofuels International, 13 October 2017, https://biofuels-news.com/display_news/13011/us_epa_gives_green_light_for_flint_hills_resources_edeniq_technologybased_ethanol_plant/.143
  144. Borregaard, “Bioethanol from Borregaard in petrol”, https://www.borregaard.com/News/Bioethanol-from-Borregaard-in-petrol. 144
  145. “Clariant to invest in new 50,000 ton Romanian Sunliquid plant”, Biofuels Digest, 31 October 2017, http://www.biofuelsdigest.com/bdigest/2017/10/31/clariant-to-invest-in-new-50000-ton-romanian-sunliquid-plant/.145
  146. “Slovakia’s Enviral licenses Clariant’s Sunliqud technology”, Biofuels Digest, 18 September 2017, http://www.biofuelsdigest.com/bdigest/2017/09/18/slovakias-enviral-licenses-clariants-sunliquid-technology/.146
  147. Poundrik, op. cit. note 8.147
  148. Praj Industries, “India’s first integrated biorefinery for renewable fuels and chemicals inaugurated by Mr Nitin Gadkari, Union Minister for Road Transport, Highways and Shipping”, 7 May 2017, https://www.praj.net/highlights/indias-first-integrated-bio-refinery-for-renewable-fuels-chemicals-inaugurated-by-mr-nitin-gadkari-union-minister-road-transport-highways-and-shipping/; “Praj a step closer to commercial scale second generation ethanol plant”, Biofuels International, 7 February 2017, https://biofuels-news.com/display_news/13406/praj_a_step_closer_to_commercial_scale_second_generation_ethanol_plant/. 148
  149. “World’s first municipal solid waste to ethanol facility starts production”, Biofuels International, 18 September 2017, https://biofuels-news.com/display_news/12890/__039_world_s_first__039__municipal_waste_to_ethanol_facility_starts_production/.149
  150. ChemEurope, “Initial funding to kick off waste-to-chemistry project in Rotterdam”, 18 February 2018, http://www.chemeurope.com/en/news/1153539/initial-funding-to-kick-off-waste-to-chemistry-project-in-rotterdam.html?WT.mc_id=ca0066; CleanTech Canada, “Canadian biofuel firm Enerkem strikes $125M scale-up deal with Chinese company”, 22 January 2018, https://www.canadianmanufacturing.com/financing/canadian-biofuel-firm-enerkem-strikes-125m-scale-deal-chinese-investor-206970/.150
  151. Ensyn, “Ontario facility”, http://www.ensyn.com/ontario.html, viewed 4 April 2018.151
  152. “768 million advanced biofuel demonstration plant coming to Norway”, Biofuels International, 15 December 2017, https://biofuels-news.com/display_news/13274/768_million_advanced_biofuel_demonstration_plant_coming_to_norway/. 152
  153. Licella, “Licella signs A$1M Accelerating Commercialisation grant for Australian waste plastics project”, 1 September 2017, http://www.licella.com.au/news/licella-signs-a1m-accelerating-commercialisation-grant-for-australian-waste-plastics-project/.153
  154. IEA, op. cit. note 3. Biofuels are seen as a key element of the aviation industry’s efforts to reduce emissions in the sector; some 100,000 flights using biofuels were anticipated in 2018, and airlines have committed to buying 5 billion litres of biofuels in the coming years, from International Air Transport Association (IATA), “Sustainable Aviation Fuels (SAF)”, http://www.iata.org/whatwedo/environment/Pages/sustainable-alternative-jet-fuels.aspx, viewed 4 April 2018, and from IATA, “10 years of flying with Sustainable Aviation Fuels (SAF)”, http://www.iata.org/pressroom/pr/Documents/saf10-infographic.pdf, viewed 4 April 2018. See also International Civil Aviation Organization, “Vision for biofuels in aviation”, https://www.icao.int/environmental-protection/GFAAF/Pages/ICAO-Vision.aspx, viewed 4 April 2018. For a discussion of the progress in developing the technologies needed to supply the aviation sector, see IRENA, Technology Brief: Biofuels for Aviation (Abu Dhabi: 2017), http://www.irena.org/documentdownloads/publications/irena_biofuels_for_aviation_2017.pdf, and IEA, op. cit. note 3. 154
  155. “Chicago O’Hare Airport goes green with renewable jet fuel”, Biofuels International, 8 November 2017, https://biofuels-news.com/display_news/13098/chicago_ohare_airport_goes_green_with_renewable_jet_fuel/; “Gevo flies high by supplying jet fuel to Virgin Australia”, Biofuels International, 6 October 2017, https://biofuels-news.com/display_news/12978/gevo_flies_high_by_supplying_renewable_jet_fuel_to_virgin_australia/.155
  156. “Qantas and Canadian biofuel producer sign farm to flight biofuel deal”, Biofuels International, 20 November 2017, https://biofuels-news.com/display_news/13155/qantas_and_canadian_biofuel_producer_sign_farm_to_flight_biofuel_deal/; “Biofuels to power Qantas flights between LA and Australia”, Biofuels International, 13 October 2017, https://biofuels-news.com/display_news/13013/biofuels_to_power_qantas_flights_between_la_and_australia/; “Qantas completes first transpacific biofuels flight”, Biofuels International, 30 January 2018, https://biofuels-news.com/display_news/13368/qantas_completes_first_transpacific_biofuels_flight/. 156
  157. “China’s first successful cross-ocean biofuels flight completed”, Biofuels International, 22 November 2017, https://biofuels-news.com/display_news/13177/chinas_first_successful_crossocean_biofuels_flight_completed/. 157
  158. IEA, Bioenergy Task 39 Report: Marine Biofuels (Paris: October 2017), http://www.ieabioenergy.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Marine-biofuel-report-final-Oct-2017.pdf.158
  159. GoodFuels, “HEINEKEN Netherlands, Nedcargo and GoodFuels launch first major pilot on sustainable marine fuel for inland waterway transport”, press release (Rotterdam: 1 June 2017), https://goodfuels.com/heineken/; “Will biofuels become a significant alternative fuel for shipping?” Sea Trade Maritime News, 16 February 2016, http://www.seatrade-maritime.com/news/americas/will-biofuels-become-significant-alternative-fuel-for-shipping.html.159
  160. Brian Parkin, “US Navy to tap Australian biofuel hub”, Renewable Energy World, 18 August 2016, https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2016/08/u-s-navy-to-tap-australian-biofuel-hub.html.160
  161. “18 new biodiesel fuelled trains coming to the Netherlands”, Biofuels International, 13 July 2017, https://biofuels-news.com/display_news/12601/18_new_biodiesel_fuelled_trains_coming_to_the_netherlands/.161
  162. Vinay Srivastava, Indian Railways Organisation for Alternative Fuels, “Use of Biofuels in IR”, presentation at EU-India Conference on Advanced Biofuels, New Delhi, 8 March 2018, https://ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/ener/files/documents/36_vinayh_srivastava-indian_railways.pdf.162
  163. IRENA, Biogas for Road Vehicles: Technology Brief (Abu Dhabi: 2017), http://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2017/Mar/IRENA_Biogas_for_Road_Vehicles_2017.pdf.163
  164. American Biogas Council, “Operational biogas systems in the U.S.”, http://www.americanbiogascouncil.org/biogas_maps.asp, viewed 4 April 2018. 164
  165. Based on data in US EPA, op. cit. note 83.165
  166. IEA, op. cit. note 85.166
  167. “Map of over 500 European biomethane facilities released”, Bioenergy Insight, 13 February 2018, https://www.bioenergy-news.com/display_news/13428/map_of_over_500_european_biomethane_facilities_released/. 167
  168. “Biogas powered brewery developed by Carlsberg”, Bioenergy Insight, 30 November 2017, https://www.bioenergy-news.com/display_news/13218/100_biogas_powered_brewery_developed_by_carlsberg/. 168
  169. Gaurav Kedia, “Follow the course of nature”, India Biogas Magazine, No. 3, p. 4, http://e.issuu.com/embed.html#32316650/57230757, viewed 4 April 2018; Gaurav Kedia, Biogas India, “The time is now right for India’s biogas industry”, video, Biogas Channel, 11 January 2017, http://www.biogaschannel.com/en/video/market/12/time-now-right-indias-biogas-industry/1253/.169
  170. Sameer Rege, “Waste processing facility at Palava city, Mumbai”, India Biogas Magazine, no. 3, pp. 12-14, http://e.issuu.com/embed.html#32316650/57230757, viewed 4 April 2018.170
  171. IEA, Bioenergy Task 37 Country Reports: Mercosur Region 2016 (Paris: 2016), http://task37.ieabioenergy.com/country-reports.html.171
  172. “Weltec Biopower extends biogas plant for milk powder manufacturer”, Bioenergy Insight, 14 November 2017, https://www.bioenergy-news.com/display_news/13128/weltec_biopower_extends_biogas_plant_for_milk_powder_manufacturer/. 172
  173. Olivado, “Olivada in Kenya”, https://www.olivado.com/the-story/kenya, viewed 4 April 2018.173
  174. IEA, op. cit. note 3, p. 26.174
  175. IEA, “Bioenergy workshop: Political and regulatory issues related to Bio-CC(U)S”, 16 January 2018, http://task41project5.ieabioenergy.com/ieaevent/market-regulatory-issues-related-bio-ccus/. 175
  176. Biochar can be from biomass via pyrolysis and is under investigation as an approach to carbon sequestration, from Science Direct, “Biochar”, https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/biochar, viewed 4 April 2018. 176
  177. US DOE, “DOE announces major milestone reached for Illinois Industrial CCS Project”, 27 April 2017, https://energy.gov/fe/articles/doe-announces-major-milestone-reached-illinois-industrial-ccs-project. The project will benefit from a tax credit worth USD 20 per tonne of CO2 stored, and has received USD 140 million in capital support from the US DOE. 177
  178. Ibid. 178
  179. Jonny Stuen, “Carbon capture from waste-to-energy in Oslo”, presentation at Fortum Oslo Varme AS, Oslo, Norway, 16 January 2018, http://task41project5.ieabioenergy.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/Stuen.pdf.179
  180. Ibid. 180
  181. European Commission, Building Up the Future – Final Report of Special Group on Advanced Biofuels to the Sustainable Transport Forum (Brussels: 2017), http://ec.europa.eu/transparency/regexpert/index.cfm?do=groupDetail.groupDetailDoc&id=33288&no=1. 181
  182. Ibid.182
  183. When biomass is gasified to produce a synthesis gas, which can then be used to produce a range of biofuels, some of the fuel is converted to CO2 rather than being incorporated in the final product. If hydrogen is injected during the gasification stage, then essentially all the biogenic carbon can be retained in the biofuels produced, improving the overall conversion efficiency and reducing the biomass quantities needed to produce a given volume of biofuels. For a discussion on BECCU, see IEA, op. cit. note 3, p. 38.183

GEOTHERMAL POWER AND HEAT

  1. Estimates based on the following sources: power capacity data for Italy, Japan and New Zealand from International Energy Agency (IEA) Geothermal, 2016 Annual Report (Taupo, New Zealand: October 2017), http://iea-gia.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Annual-Report-2016.pdf; power capacity data for Mexico from Luis C.A. Gutiérrez-Negrín, Mexican Geothermal Association, personal communication with REN21, March 2018; power capacity data for Chile, Iceland, Indonesia, Philippines, Turkey and the United States from sources noted elsewhere in this section; capacity data for all other countries from International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), Renewable Capacity Statistics 2018 (Abu Dhabi: 2018), http://irena.org/publications/2018/Mar/Renewable-Capacity-Statistics-2018; estimated electricity generation in 2017 from IEA, Renewables 2017 (Paris: 2017). Heat capacity and output is an extrapolation from five-year growth rates calculated from generation and capacity data for 2009 and 2014, from John W. Lund and Tonya L. Boyd, “Direct utilization of geothermal energy 2015 worldwide review”, Geothermics, vol. 60 (March 2016), pp. 66-93, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geothermics.2015.11.004. 184
  2. End-2016 capacity data and capacity additions in 2017 from sources in Ibid. 185
  3. Capacity additions in 2017 by country from sources noted elsewhere in this section.186
  4. Ibid. Figure 20 based on end-2016 capacity data and capacity additions in 2017 from sources in endnote 1, and on sources noted elsewhere in this section. For the purpose of this figure, end-2016 capacity is assumed to be equal to end-2017 capacity less new capacity installed during 2017.187
  5. End-2016 capacity data from sources in endnote 1; capacity additions in 2017, by country, from sources noted elsewhere in this section. Figure 21 from idem.188
  6. Capacity of 1.64 GW at end-2016 from Indonesian Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, “Statistik Ketenagalistrikan 2016”, January 2016, https://www.esdm.go.id/assets/media/content/content-statistik-ketenagalistrikan-tahun-2016-1.pdf; capacity of 1.81 GW at end-2017 from Indonesian Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, “Capaian Sub Sektor Ketenagalistrikan Dan EBTKE Tahun 2017 Dan Outlook 2018”, press release (Jakarta: 10 January 2018), https://www.esdm.go.id/en/media-center/news-archives/capaian-sub-sektor-ketenagalistrikan-dan-ebtke-tahun-2017-dan-outlook-2018.189
  7. Toshiba Corporation and Ormat Technologies Inc., “One of the world’s largest geothermal power plants commences commercial operation”, press release (Reno, NV and Tokyo: 22 March 2017), http://www.toshiba.co.jp/about/press/2017_03/pr2201.htm; Sonal Patel, “Sarulla, one of the world’s largest geothermal power projects, comes alive with private finance”, Power, 1 December 2017, http://www.powermag.com/sarulla-one-of-the-worlds-largest-geothermal-power-projects-comes-alive-with-private-finance. 190
  8. Viriya P. Singgih, ”Pertamina completes US$397 million geothermal units in Lampung”, Jakarta Post, 16 June 2017, http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2017/06/16/pertamina-completes-us397-million-geothermal-units-in-lampung.html.191
  9. Indonesian Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, “Capaian Sub Sektor…”, op. cit. note 6.192
  10. Capacity of 820.9 MW and 31 plants at end-2016 and capacity of 1,063.7 MW and 40 plants at end-2017 from Turkish Electricity Transmission Company (TEİAŞ) website, http://www.teias.gov.tr, viewed March 2018. 193
  11. Zorlu Energy Group, “Zorlu Energy has commissioned the first phase of Kızıldere III geothermal power plant”, press release (Istanbul: 5 September 2017), http://www.zorluenerji.com.tr/en/press-room/press-releases-detail/3167/zorlu-energy-has-commissioned-the-first-phase-of-kizildere-iii-geothermal-power-plant.194
  12. “Zorlu completes Turkey’s largest geothermal plant”, Newsbase, 22 March 2018, https://newsbase.com/topstories/zorlu-completes-turkey%E2%80%99s-largest-geothermal-plant.195
  13. Alexander Richter, “Turkey reaches milestone 1,100 MW of installed geothermal power generation capacity”, ThinkGeoEnergy, 5 January 2018, http://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/turkey-reaches-milestone-1100-mw-of-installed-geothermal-power-generation-capacity.196
  14. See Renewable Energy Network for the 21st Century (REN21), Renewables Global Status Report (Paris: 2014-2016 editions).197
  15. Bariş Şimşek, “Geothermal industry to receive $1B investment in 2018”, Daily Sabah, 19 December 2017, https://www.dailysabah.com/energy/2017/12/19/geothermal-industry-to-receive-1b-investment-in-2018. 198
  16. Ibid.199
  17. Richter, op. cit. note 13.200
  18. Enel, “Enel and Enap inaugurate South America’s first geothermal power plant Cerro Paballón”, press release (Rome and Santiago: 12 September 2017), https://www.enel.com/media/press/d/2017/09/enel-and-enap-inaugurate-south-americas-first-geothermal-power-plant-cerro-pabelln.201
  19. Ormat Technologies Inc., “Ormat commissions the first geothermal power plant in Honduras”, press release (Reno, NV: 26 September 2017), http://investor.ormat.com/file/Index?KeyFile=390415609.202
  20. Gutiérrez-Negrín, op. cit. note 1; Comisión Federal de Electricidad, “Inaugure la Comisión Federal de Electricidad la central geothermoeléctrica ‘Los Humeros III – Fase A’ en el estado de Puebla”, 22 November 2017, https://www.cfe.mx/salaprensa/Paginas/salaprensadetalle.aspx?iid=397&ilib=5.203
  21. Gutiérrez-Negrín, op. cit. note 1.204
  22. National Power Company of Iceland (Landsvirkjun), “Landsvirkjun’s 17th power station begins operations at Þeistareykir”, 21 November 2017, https://www.landsvirkjun.com/company/mediacentre/news/news-read/landsvirkjuns-17th-power-station-begins-operations-at-theistareykir.205
  23. Mannvit, “Theistareykir Geothermal Power Plant”, http://www.mannvit.com/projects/theistareykir-geothermal-power-plant, viewed March 2018.206
  24. Orkustofnun, Energy Statistics in Iceland 2016 (Reykjavik: 2017), http://os.is/gogn/os-onnur-rit/Orkutolur-2016-enska.pdf. Capacity of 710 MW based on capacity at end-2016 of 665 MW, with addition of 45 MW in 2017.207
  25. Alexander Richter, “Idemitsu Kosan starts operation of 5 MW Takigami geothermal plant, Japan”, ThinkGeoEnergy, 7 March 2017, http://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/idemitsu-kosan-starts-operation-of-5-mw-takigami-geothermal-plant-japan; end-2016 capacity from IEA Geothermal, op. cit. note 1.208
  26. IEA Geothermal, op. cit. note 1, p. 66; Frost & Sullivan, “Japan Onsen Power” (London: 6 December 2017), p. 4, https://www.frost.com/sublib/display-market-insight.do?id=298077804.209
  27. “Small geothermal plants gaining steam in Japan”, Nikkei Asian Review, 27 February 2017, http://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Companies/Small-geothermal-plants-gaining-steam-in-Japan.210
  28. Addition and retirements from US Energy Information Administration (EIA), Electric Power Monthly with Data for December 2017 (Washington, DC: February 2018), Tables 6.3 and 6.4, https://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly/archive/february2018.pdf; Ormat, “24 MWTungsten Mountain geothermal power plant in Nevada begins commercial operation”, press release (Reno, NV: 21 December 2017), http://investor.ormat.com/file/Index?KeyFile=391543763. The EIA indicates that the new plant has a net capacity of 37 MW, while the project developer claims a capacity of 24 MW.211
  29. Generation from EIA, op. cit. note 28, Tables 1.1 and 1.1.A; net installed capacity from idem, Table 6.2.B; total installed gross capacity in the United States of 3.8 GW at end-2016 from IEA Geothermal, op. cit. note 1, p. 113.212
  30. Ormat, op. cit. note 28.213
  31. Ben Delwiche et al., “Successful deployment of a multi-crossing directional drilling method at Ormat’s new Tungsten Mountain geothermal field in Churchill County, Nevada”, Proceedings of the 43rd Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering at Stanford University, February 12-14, 2018, https://pangea.stanford.edu/ERE/db/GeoConf/papers/SGW/2018/Delwiche.pdf.214
  32. Bloomberg New Energy Finance and Business Council for Sustainable Energy, 2018 Sustainable Energy in America Factbook (London and Washington, DC: 2018), http://www.bcse.org; Benjamin Matek, 2016 Annual U.S. & Global Power Production Report (Washington, DC: Geothermal Energy Association, March 2016), http://www.geo-energy.org.215
  33. Philippines Department of Energy, Electrical Power Industry Management Bureau, “Power Supply and Demand Highlights: January-June 2017”, https://www.doe.gov.ph/sites/default/files/pdf/electric_power/power_supply_demand_highlights_jan_jun_2017.pdf.216
  34. Lenie Lectura, “Maibarara Geothermal puts power plant online”, BusinessMirror, 12 March 2018, https://businessmirror.com.ph/maibarara-geothermal-puts-power-plant-online; “Maibarara-2 geothermal facility adds 12 MW to Luzon Grid”, Power Philippines News, 12 March 2018, http://powerphilippines.com/2018/03/12/maibarara-2-geothermal-facility-adds-12-mw-luzon-grid.217
  35. Exergy, “Exergy’s Pico Also 4 MWe geothermal plant now powering up Terceira Island in the Azores”, press release (Terceira, Azores: 20 November 2017), http://exergy-orc.com/communication/news/exergys-pico-alto-4-mwe-geothermal-plant-now-powering-up-terceira-island-in-the-azores; KS Orka, “Hungary Budapest – Geothermal Heat and Power Plant Tura Commissioning”, https://ksorka.com/geothermal-heat-power-plant-tura-commissioning; Alexander Richter, “First geothermal heat and power plant of Hungary connected to grid”, ThinkGeoEnergy, 17 November 2017, http://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/first-geothermal-heat-and-power-plant-of-hungary-starts-operation.218
  36. European Commission, “The European Union supporting renewable energy in the Eastern Caribbean through geothermal energy”, 20 November 2017, https://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/news-and-events/european-union-supporting-renewable-energy-eastern-caribbean-through-geothermal_en; Caribbean Development Bank, “CDB receives EU funding to support geothermal energy development”, 23 October 2017, http://www.caribank.org/news/cdb-receives-eu-funding-support-geothermal-energy-development.219
  37. “Geothermal exploration drill rig arrives on Nevis”, St Kitts & Nevis Observer, 3 November 2017, http://www.thestkittsnevisobserver.com/local-news/geothermal-exploration-drill-rig-arrives-on-nevis; Monique Washington, “Geothermal to begin wells to be completed in January 2018”, St Kitts & Nevis Observer, 25 November 2017, http://www.thestkittsnevisobserver.com/local-news/geothermal-begin-wells-completed-january-2018.220
  38. China National Energy Administration (NEA), 13th Five-Year Plan for Geothermal Power (Beijing: 6 February 2017), http://www.nea.gov.cn/136035635_14863708180701n.pdf (using Google Translate). 221
  39. Ibid.; Zheng Xin, “Sinopec to harvest more heat from earth”, China Daily, 15 February 2017, http://europe.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2017-02/15/content_28202201.htm. 222
  40. Data for 2014 from Lund and Boyd, op. cit. note 1. Capacity and generation for 2017 are extrapolated from 2014 values (from sources) by weighted-average growth rate across eight categories of geothermal direct use: space heating, bathing and swimming, greenhouse heating, aquaculture, industrial use, snow melting and cooling, agricultural drying and other.223
  41. Lund and Boyd, op. cit. note 1.224
  42. Ibid.225
  43. Ibid.226
  44. Ibid.227
  45. Ibid.228
  46. Ibid.229
  47. Ibid.230
  48. Ibid.231
  49. Philippe Dumas, European Geothermal Energy Council, Brussels, personal communication with REN21, May 2018.232
  50. “Nouvelle centrale de géothermie à Villejuif: un joyau de l’énergie verte”, 94 Citoyens, 10 March 2017, https://94.citoyens.com/2017/nouvelle-centrale-de-geothermie-a-villejuif-un-joyau-de-lenergie-verte,10-03-2017.html; “Villejuif: portes ouvertes à la nouvelle centrale de géothermie”, Le Parisien, 14 May 2017, http://www.leparisien.fr/villejuif-94800/villejuif-portes-ouvertes-a-la-nouvelle-centrale-de-geothermie-14-05-2017-6948504.php.233
  51. Engie, “Dammarie-lès-Lys puise la chaleur en sous-sol!” http://www.engie.fr/actualites/geothermie-dammarie-les-lys; “Dammarie-les-Lys. Dernière ligne droite pour le chantier de géothermie”, Le Parisien, 19 September 2017, http://www.leparisien.fr/dammarie-les-lys-77190/dammarie-les-lys-derniere-ligne-droite-pour-le-chantier-de-geothermie-18-09-2017-7269213.php; Dalkia, “Nouvelle géothermie à Tremblay-en-France”, 26 May 2017, https://www.dalkia.fr/fr/e-mag-efficacite-energetique/nouvelle-geothermie-tremblay-en-france; GPC IP, “A second subhorizontal well successfully completed and tested at Cachan (Paris Basin, France)”, press release (Paris: no date), http://geoproduction.fr/fr/actualite/press-release-subhorizontal-geothermal-well-architecture-proven-concept.234
  52. Dalkia, “Géothermie: premier forage sub-horizontal mondial à Cachan”, February 2018, https://www.dalkia.fr/fr/e-mag-efficacite-energetique/le-premier-forage-sub-horizontal-mondial-cachan.235
  53. Zheng Xin and Zou Shuo, “Sinopec targets Xiongan for earth energy”, China Daily, 27 November 2017, http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2017-11/27/content_35042134.htm.236
  54. China NEA, op. cit. note 38; Xin, op. cit. note 39.237
  55. “China raises use of geothermal energy”, Xinhua, 3 October 2017, http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2017-10/03/c_136656838.htm.238
  56. Alexander Richter, “Geothermal vegetables from Iceland – exporting geothermal energy”, ThinkGeoEnergy, 23 August 2017, http://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/geothermal-vegetables-from-iceland-exporting-geothermal-energy. 239
  57. Thrainn Fridriksson, “Comparative Analysis of Approaches to Geothermal Resource Risk Mitigation”, presentation at the Regional Workshop on Geothermal Financing and Risk Mitigation in Africa, Nairobi, 31 January-2 February 2018, http://www.irena.org/events/2018/Jan/Regional-Workshop-on-Geothermal-Financing-and-Risk-Mitigation-in-Africa.240
  58. World Bank, Energy Sector Management Assistance Program, Comparative Analysis of Approaches to Geothermal Resource Risk Mitigation (Washington, DC: 5 May 2016), http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/621131468180534369/pdf/105172-ESM-P144569-PUBLIC-FINAL-ESMAP-GeoRiskMitigation-KS024-16-web.pdf. In 2016, the World Bank created a framework to assess different approaches to geothermal risk mitigation, which include various forms of government involvement, such as direct funding or cost-sharing arrangements, as well as geothermal risk insurance that pools exploration risk across many projects.241
  59. European Technology and Innovation Platform on Deep Geothermal, “Vision for Deep Geothermal”, March 2018, p. 16, https://www.etip-dg.eu/front/wp-content/uploads/ETIP-DG_Vision_web.pdf.242
  60. US Department of Energy (DOE), Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy (EERE), “The Geothermal Technologies Office announces Play Fairway Analysis Phase III selections”, 20 July 2017, https://www.energy.gov/eere/geothermal/articles/geothermal-technologies-office-announces-play-fairway-analysis-phase-iii.243
  61. US DOE, EERE, Geothermal Technologies Office, 2017 Annual Report (Washington, DC: January 2018), p. 12, https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2018/01/f47/GTO%202017%20Annual%20Report.pdf.244
  62. US DOE, EERE, “Energy Department announces up to $4 million for geothermal deep direct-use feasibility studies”, 30 June 2017, https://www.energy.gov/eere/articles/energy-department-announces-4-million-geothermal-deep-direct-use-feasibility-studies. 245
  63. US DOE, op. cit. note 61.246
  64. US DOE, “What Is an Enhanced Geothermal System (EGS)?” fact sheet (Washington, DC: May 2016), https://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2016/05/f31/EGS%20Fact%20Sheet%20May%202016.pdf; Bergur Sigfússon and Andreas Uihlein, 2015 JRC Geothermal Energy Status Report (Petten, The Netherlands: European Commission Joint Research Centre, 2015), https://setis.ec.europa.eu/sites/default/files/reports/2015_jrc_geothermal_energy_status_report.pdf.247
  65. European Technology and Innovation Platform on Deep Geothermal, op. cit. note 59, p. 16; European Technology and Innovation Platform on Deep Geothermal, “Vision for deep geothermal: looking towards 2050”, press release (Pisa, Italy: 27 March 2018), http://www.etip-dg.eu/front/wp-content/uploads/A-Vision-for-Deep-Geothermal_pressRelease.pdf.248
  66. European Technology and Innovation Platform on Deep Geothermal, op. cit. note 59, pp. 20-23.249
  67. Thráinn Fridriksson, “Gases in geothermal fluids and gas emissions from geothermal power plants”, Global Geothermal Roundtable III (Reykjavik: 26 April 2016), https://www.esmap.org/sites/esmap.org/files/DocumentLibrary/2.%20Thrainn%20Fridriksson%20Gas%20Emissions%20from%20Geothermal.pdf.250
  68. Nevzat Özgür, “Reinjection of the CO2 into the reservoirs of the geothermal waters in the continental rifts zones of the Menderes Massif, Western Anatolia, Turkey”, Proceedings of the 43rd Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering, Stanford University, February 12-14, 2018, https://pangea.stanford.edu/ERE/db/GeoConf/papers/SGW/2018/Ozgur.pdf; Erik B. Layman, “Geothermal projects in Turkey: extreme greenhouse gas emissions rate comparable to or exceeding those from coal-fired plants”, Proceedings of the 42nd Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering, Stanford University, February 13-15, 2017, https://pangea.stanford.edu/ERE/db/GeoConf/papers/SGW/2017/Layman.pdf.251
  69. Juerg M. Matter et al., “Rapid carbon mineralization for permanent disposal of anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions”, Science, 10 June 2016, http://science.sciencemag.org/content/352/6291/1312.full; Bjarni Mar Juliusson, “The Sulfix project”, presentation at the Iceland Geothermal Conference, Reykjavik, 26-29 April 2016, http://www.geothermalconference.is/files/presentations/a3---bjarni-mar-juliusson-----the-sulfix-project.pdf; Bjarni Mar Juliusson et al., “Tackling the challenge of H2S emissions”, Proceedings of the World Geothermal Congress 2015, Melbourne, Australia, 19-25 April 2015, https://pangea.stanford.edu/ERE/db/WGC/papers/WGC/2015/02062.pdf.252
  70. Climeworks, “Climeworks starts plant in Iceland and thereby creates the world’s first carbon removal solution through direct air capture” press release (Reykjavik: 12 October 2017), http://www.climeworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/PR-Climeworks-CarbFix-Carbon-Removal-1.pdf.253
  71. Jan Přikryl et al., “H2S sequestration process and sustainability in geothermal systems”, Geothermics, vol. 71 (January 2018), pp. 156-66, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geothermics.2017.09.010.254
  72. Aniko N. Toth et al., “Converting abandoned Hungarian oil and gas wells into geothermal sources”, Proceedings of the 43rd Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering, Stanford University, February 12-14, 2018, https://pangea.stanford.edu/ERE/db/GeoConf/papers/SGW/2018/Toth.pdf; Saket Srivastava and Catalin Teodoriu, “Gas well conversion to geothermal: A case study for Oklahoma”, Proceedings of the 43rd Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering, Stanford University, February 12-14, 2018, https://pangea.stanford.edu/ERE/db/GeoConf/papers/SGW/2018/Srivastava.pdf. Binary-cycle power plants could extract heat for power generation from maturing gas wells as gas production gradually gives way to water production, effectively increasing the economic life of the well.255
  73. Durham University, “Exploring geothermal energy potential”, 4 July 2017, https://www.dur.ac.uk/news/newsitem/?id=31855&itemno=31855; Jeremy Crooks, “Coal mines as energy storage”, UtilityWeek, 9 February 2018, https://utilityweek.co.uk/coal-mines-energy-storage.256
  74. Jimmy Thomson, “Why a small Alberta oil and gas town is pursuing geothermal power”, 20 March 2018, https://www.desmog.ca/2018/03/20/why-small-alberta-oil-and-gas-town-pursuing-geothermal-power.257
  75. US DOE, EERE, Geothermal Technologies Office, op. cit. note 61, p. 13. 258
  76. SRI International, “Lithium recovery from geothermal operations”, https://www.sri.com/work/projects/lithium-recovery-geothermal-operations; US DOE, EERE, “EERE success story – geothermal technology to help meet high lithium demand”, 30 November 2016, https://www.energy.gov/eere/success-stories/articles/eere-success-story-geothermal-technology-help-meet-high-lithium-demand.259
  77. MGX Minerals Inc., “MGX Minerals announces ultra high temperature filtration for extraction of lithium from geothermal brine”, press release (Vancouver, BC: 29 November 2017), https://globenewswire.com/news-release/2017/11/29/1210195/0/en/MGX-Minerals-Announces-Ultra-High-Temperature-Filtration-for-Extraction-of-Lithium-from-Geothermal-Brine.html.260
  78. Ormat, “Ormat signs definitive agreement to acquire U.S. Geothermal”, press release (Reno, NV: 24 January 2018), http://investor.ormat.com/file/Index?KeyFile=391874176; Viridity Energy, “Ormat Technologies announces closing of the acquisition of Viridity Energy”, press release (Reno, NV: 1 March 2017), http://investor.ormat.com/File/Index?KeyFile=37344906.261
  79. Alexander Richter, “Egesim and Atlas Copco partnership to offer joint geothermal power plant solution”, ThinkGeoEnergy, 17 February 2017, http://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/egesim-and-atlas-copco-partnership-to-offer-joint-geothermal-power-plant-solution. Under the agreement, Atlas Copco contributes its ORC technology and radial turbine, while EGESIM provides other components and local experience.262

HYDROPOWER

  1. Global capacity estimate based on International Hydropower Association (IHA), personal communications with REN21, March-April 2018 and IHA, Hydropower Status Report 2018, (London: May 2018), http://www.hydropower.org. At end-2017, total installed capacity was 1,267 GW, less 153 GW of pumped storage.263
  2. See Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21), Renewables Global Status Report (Paris: 2014-2017 editions).264
  3. Country data from the following sources: China: total capacity, capacity growth, utilisation and investment from China National Energy Agency (NEA), summary of national electric industry statistics for 2017, http://www.nea.gov.cn/2018-01/22/c_136914154.htm; capacity additions in 2017 of 12.87 GW, including 2 GW of pumped storage, from China Electricity Council (CEC), annual report on national power system, 1 February 2018, http://www.cec.org.cn/guihuayutongji/gongzuodongtai/2018-02-01/177584.html; pumped storage capacity of 28.49 GW as of 26 December 2017, from CEC, http://www.cec.org.cn/hangyeguangjiao/meitijujiao2/2017-12-26/176468.html; generation of 1,189.8 TWh and annual growth of 0.5% from National Bureau of Statistics of China, “Statistical communiqué of the People’s Republic of China on the 2017 national economic and social development”, press release (Beijing: 28 February 2018), http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/PressRelease/201802/t20180228_1585666.html; total capacity including pumped storage of 341.19 GW, pumped storage capacity of 28.49 GW and hydropower capacity of 312.7 GW; capacity additions (excluding pumped storage) of 7.3 GW; and pumped storage additions of 1.8 GW from IHA and International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), personal communications with REN21, March-April 2018. Brazil: 3,412 MW (3,115 MW large-scale hydro, 187 MW small-scale hydro and 110 MW very small-scale hydro) added in 2017, from National Agency for Electrical Energy (ANEEL), “Resumo geral dos novos empreendimentos de geração”, http://www.aneel.gov.br/acompanhamento-da-expansao-da-oferta-de-geracao-de-energia-eletrica, updated April 2018, and from ANEEL, “Informações gerenciais”, http://www.aneel.gov.br/informacoes-gerenciais; large-scale hydro capacity is listed as 94,662 MW at end-2017, small-scale (1-30 MW) hydro as 5,020 MW and very small-scale (less than 1 MW) hydro as 594 MW (compared to 484 MW in the previous year), for a total of 100,275 MW; generation of 401 TWh from National Electrical System Operator of Brazil (ONS), “Geração de energia”, http://www.ons.org.br/Paginas/resultados-da-operacao/historico-da-operacao/geracao_energia.aspx, viewed April 2018. United States: capacity from US Energy Information Administration (EIA), Electric Power Monthly with Data for December 2017 (Washington, DC: February 2018), Tables 6.2.B and 6.3, https://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly/archive/february2018.pdf; generation from idem, Table 1.1. Canada: data for 2016 only from Statistics Canada, “Table 127-0009 installed generating capacity, by class of electricity producer”, http://www5.statcan.gc.ca/cansim, viewed March 2018; generation for 2016 only from idem, “Table 127-0007 electric power generation, by class of electricity producer, annual”. Russian Federation: capacity and generation from System Operator of the Unified Energy System of Russia, Report on the Unified Energy System in 2017 (Moscow: 31 January 2018), http://www.so-ups.ru/fileadmin/files/company/reports/disclosure/2018/ups_rep2017.pdf. India: installed capacity in 2017 (units larger than 25 MW) of 40,177.82 MW (plus 4,785.6 MW of pumped storage) from Government of India, Ministry of Power, Central Electricity Authority (CEA), “Hydro reports”, December 2017, http://www.cea.nic.in/monthlyarchive.html; installed small-scale (<25 MW) hydro capacity of 4,418 MW, all capacity additions in 2017 of 1,908 MW, and generation for plants larger than 25 MW (127.9 TWh) from Government of India, Ministry of Power, CEA, “Executive summary of the power sector (monthly)”, http://www.cea.nic.in/monthlyarchive.html, viewed April 2018; output from hydro plants smaller than 25 MW (7.9 TWh) from idem, “Renewable energy generation report”, http://www.cea.nic.in/monthlyarchive.html, viewed April 2018. Norway: capacity and generation from Statistics Norway, https://www.ssb.no/statbank/list/elektrisitet, viewed March 2018, and from Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate, https://www.nve.no/energiforsyning-og-konsesjon/energiforsyningsdata/ny-kraftproduksjon, viewed March 2018. Figure 22 based on capacity and generation sources provided in this note, and from IHA, Hydropower Status Report 2018 (London: May 2018), http://www.hydropower.org.265
  4. IHA, op. cit. note 1.266
  5. Ibid. and sources on individual pumped storage projects noted elsewhere in this section.267
  6. Capacity values by country from sources provided in endnote 3 and from IHA, op. cit. note 1. Figure 23 based on idem.268
  7. See text and sources throughout this section.269
  8. Total capacity including pumped storage of 341.19 GW, pumped storage capacity of 28.49 GW and hydropower capacity of 312.7 GW; capacity additions (excluding pumped storage) of 7.3 GW; and pumped storage additions of 1.8 GW from IHA and IRENA, op. cit. note 3. Total capacity including pumped storage capacity of 341.19 GW, capacity additions of 12.87 GW and annual capacity growth of 2.7% from China NEA, op. cit. note 3; capacity additions in 2017 of 12.87 GW, including 2 GW of pumped storage, from CEC, annual report on national power system, op. cit. note 3; pumped storage capacity of 28.49 GW as of 26 December 2017, from CEC, http://www.cec.org.cn/hangyeguangjiao/meitijujiao2/2017-12-26/176468.html.270
  9. China NEA, op. cit. note 3.271
  10. Generation of 1,189.8 TWh and annual growth of 0.5% from National Bureau of Statistics of China, op. cit. note 3. Generation of 1,194.5 TWh and growth of 1.7% from China NEA, 24 January 2018, http://www.nea.gov.cn/2018-01/24/c_136921015.htm.272
  11. Total pumped storage capacity and additions of 1.8 GW from IHA and IRENA, op. cit. note 3; pumped storage capacity additions of 2 GW, from CEC, annual report on national power system, op. cit. note 3; pumped storage capacity of 28.49 GW as of 26 December 2017, and capacity under construction, from CEC, http://www.cec.org.cn/hangyeguangjiao/meitijujiao2/2017-12-26/176468.html273
  12. CEC, http://www.cec.org.cn/hangyeguangjiao/meitijujiao2/2017-12-26/176468.html.274
  13. Vietnam Electricity Corporation – National Electricity Center, press release (Hanoi: 12 May 2017), http://www.evn.com.vn/d6/news/Phat-dien-to-may-3-cong-trinh-Thuy-dien-Trung-Son--0-142-19889.aspx; Vietnam Electricity Corporation – National Electricity Center, press release (Hanoi: 21 February 2017), http://www.nldc.evn.vn/newsg/6/1767/To-may-1-Thuy-dien-Trung-Son-chinh-thuc-hoa-luoi-dien-quoc-gia/default.aspx; World Bank, “VN-Trung Son Hydropower Project”, http://projects.worldbank.org/P084773/vn-trung-son-hydropower-project?lang=en&tab=overview, viewed March 2018; IHA and World Bank Group, Better Hydro: Compendium of Case Studies 2017 (London: October 2017), pp. 42-43, www.hydropower.org/better-hydro.275
  14. This total excludes pumped storage capacity. Installed capacity in 2017 (units larger than 25 MW) of 40,177.82 MW (plus 4,785.6 MW of pumped storage) from Government of India, Ministry of Power, CEA, “Hydro reports”, op. cit. note 3; installed small (<25 MW) hydro capacity of 4,418 MW and all capacity additions in 2017 of 1,908 MW from Government of India, Ministry of Power, CEA, “Executive summary of the power sector (monthly)”, op. cit. note 3. 276
  15. All capacity additions in 2017 of 1,908 MW from Government of India, Ministry of Power, CEA, “Executive summary of the power sector (monthly)”, op. cit. note 3. 277
  16. “Teesta-III a failed PPP project, alleges AIPEF”, Economic Times, 25 June 2017, https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/energy/power/teesta-iii-a-failed-ppp-project-alleges-aipef/articleshow/59308055.cms.278
  17. “20 hydro projects of 6,329 MW stalled or stressed, says Piyush Goyal”, Economic Times, 9 March 2017, https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/energy/power/20-hydro-projects-of-6329-mw-stalled-or-stressed-says-piyush-goyal/articleshow/57557541.cms.279
  18. Generation for plants larger than 25 MW (127.9 TWh) from Government of India, Ministry of Power, CEA, “Executive summary of the power sector (monthly)”, op. cit. note 3; output from hydropower plants smaller than 25 MW (7.9 TWh) from idem, “Renewable energy generation report”, http://www.cea.nic.in/monthlyarchive.html, viewed April 2018. 280
  19. IHA, “Pakistan – Patrind”, https://www.hydropower.org/case-studies/pakistan-patrind, viewed April 2018; Star Hydro Power Limited, “Patrind Project”, http://patrind.com/patrind.php, viewed April 2018.281
  20. “Hydropower project made functional”, The Nation, 14 December 2017, https://nation.com.pk/14-Dec-2017/hydropower-project-made-functional; “KP Govt inaugurates 2.6 MW Machai hydro power station in Mardan”, Peshawar Today, 13 October 2017, http://www.peshawartoday.com/news/590.282
  21. “Hydroelectric dam opens in Lorestan”, Financial Tribune, 27 May 2017, https://financialtribune.com/articles/energy/65258/hydropower-dam-opens-in-lorestan; capacity from IHA, 2017 Hydropower Status Report (London: April 2017), http://www.hydropower.org.
  22. “Iran Rudbar Lorestan hydropower dam undertaken by CGGC completed”, China Daily, 23 September 2016, http://www.china­daily.com.cn/m/gezhouba/2016-09/23/content_26878862.htm.283
  23. “New hydroelectric power plant in the western province”, Iran Business News, 19 September 2018, http://www.iran-bn.com/tag/hydro-electric-power; Iranian Ministry of Energy, “Statistical summary of Iran electricity industry”, 12 January 2018, http://amar.tavanir.org.ir/pages/project/generation/week/2018/2.pdf.284
  24. Capacity at end-2017 of 27.3 GW from Türkiye Elektrik Iletim A.Ş. (TEİAŞ) website, http://www.teias.gov.tr, viewed March 2018; increase of 0.6 GW based on total capacity of 26.7 GW at end-2016 reported by same source. 285
  25. Generation from TEİAŞ website, https://www.teias.gov.tr/tr/elektrik-istatistikleri, viewed March 2018; “Turkey produces 58.4 billion KWh of hydropower in 2017”, AA Energy, 16 March 2018, https://aa.com.tr/en/energy/hydro/turkey-produces-584-billion-kwh-of-hydropower-in-2017/19250. 286
  26. ANEEL, op. cit. note 3, both sources.287
  27. ANEEL, “Relatório de acompanhamento da implantação de empreendimentos de geração”, April 2017, http://www.aneel.gov.br/boletim-da-expansao-da-oferta; Santo Antônio Energia, http://www.santoantonioenergia.com.br/en/tecnologia/tecnologiaavancada, viewed April 2018.288
  28. ANEEL, “Relatório de acompanhamento da implantação de empreendimentos de geração”, March 2018, http://www.aneel.gov.br/boletim-da-expansao-da-oferta; ANEEL, “Acompanhamento das centrais geradoras hidrelétricas”, February 2018, http://www.aneel.gov.br/acompanhamento-da-expansao-da-oferta-de-geracao-de-energia-eletrica; completion of 4.5 GW from Norte Energia, http://norteenergiasa.com.br, viewed 12 February 2018.289
  29. “Brazil court suspends Belo Monte dam operating license over sanitation”, Reuters, 7 April 2017, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-brazil-energy/brazil-court-suspends-belo-monte-dam-operating-license-over-sanitation-idUSKBN17927L; Michael Harris, “Court suspends 11.2-GW Belo Monte hydropower plant's operating license”, HydroWorld, 7 April 2017, http://www.hydroworld.com/articles/2017/04/court-suspends-11-2-gw-belo-monte-hydropower-plant-s-operating-license.html.290
  30. ANEEL, op. cit. note 28, both sources.291
  31. Generation from ONS, op. cit. note 3.292
  32. Elizabeth Ingram, “Hydropower shortage from drought raises electricity surcharge in Brazil”, HydroWorld, 26 October 2017, http://www.hydroworld.com/articles/2017/10/hydropower-shortage-from-drought-raises-electricity-surcharge-in-brazil.html. 293
  33. Empresa Nacional de Electricidad, “Proyecto Hidroeléctrico Misicuni”, http://www.ende.bo/NewProyectos/resena/proyecto-hidroelectrico-misicuni, viewed March 2018.294
  34. José Romero, “Misicuni comienza a generar electricidad y dotar de energía a la red nacional”, Los Tiempos, 1 September 2017, http://www.lostiempos.com/actualidad/economia/20170901/misicuni-comienza-generar-electricidad-dotar-energia-red-nacional.295
  35. Government of Peru, Organismo Supervisor de la Inversión en Energía y Minería, inventory of hydropower projects, http://www.osinergmin.gob.pe/empresas/electricidad/proyectos/generacion, viewed March 2018.296
  36. IHA, personal communication with REN21, April 2018; Generadora Luzma, “PCH Luzma I y II”, http://generadoraluzma.com.co/proyectos, viewed April 2018; Industrias Metalúrgicas Esgueva S.A., “Equipo limpiarrejas Central Hidroeléctrica Luzma I y II”, http://www.imesa.es/proyectos/equipo-limpiarrejas-central-hidroelectrica-luzma-i-ii, viewed April 2018; Sistema de Informatión Eléctrico Colombiano (SIEL), http://www.siel.gov.co/siel/Home/Generacion/tabid/56/Default.aspx, viewed March-April 2018.297
  37. “Malanje: Fauna e flora em volta da barragem de Laúca serão preservadas”, Agência Angola Press, 4 August 2017, http://www.angop.ao/angola/pt_pt/noticias/economia/2017/7/31/Malanje-Fauna-flora-volta-barragem-Lauca-serao-preservadas,4f2ba0e7-5201-4ad1-8ccc-4c5d2160c4eb.html.298
  38. “Cuanza Norte: Barragem de Cambambe aumenta produção para 960 megawatts”, Agência Angola Press, 29 June 2017, http://www.angop.ao/angola/pt_pt/noticias/economia/2017/5/26/Cuanza-Norte-Barragem-Cambambe-aumenta-producao-para-960-megawatts,20785c5e-a90a-426f-9eb7-4f6e4248d48e.html; “Inaugurada 2ª Central da Barragem de Cambambe”, Agência Angola Press, 29 June 2017, http://www.angop.ao/angola/pt_pt/noticias/economia/2017/5/26/Inaugurada-Central-Barragem-Cambambe,1b092d7b-12b5-4a99-b6d0-b75bc9adabd8.html.299
  39. Republic of Angola, Ministry of Energy and Water, Angola Energy 2025 (Luanda: 2016), http://www.angolaenergia2025.com/sites/default/files/editor/livro_angola_energia_2025_baixa.pdf.300
  40. IEA, Energy Access Outlook 2017, Electricity Access Database, https://www.iea.org/energyaccess/database/, viewed March-April 2018. 301
  41. Tractabel-Engie, “Soubré hydroelectric power scheme inaugurated in Côte d’Ivoire”, press release (Brussels: 10 November 2017), https://tractebel-engie.com/en/news/2017/soubre-hydroelectric-power-scheme-inaugurated-in-cote-d-ivoire; “Côte d’Ivoire: inauguration du barrage de Soubré”, BBC News, 2 November 2017, http://www.bbc.com/afrique/region-41843792.302
  42. Ibid., both sources; electricity access from IEA, op. cit. note 40. 303
  43. “Sudan inaugurates Upper Atbara and Setait Dam power project”, Construction Review Online, 14 February 2017, https://constructionreviewonline.com/2017/02/sudan-inaugurates-upper-atbara-and-setait-dam-power-project; percentage increase in capacity from “Upper Atbara, Setit dam complex inaugurated”, African Energy, 16 February 2017, https://www.africa-energy.com/article/upper-atbara-setit-dam-complex-inaugurated. 304
  44. “Saudi Arabia bolsters its relations with Sudan amid tension with Egypt”, Middle East Observer, 31 January 2017, https://www.middleeastobserver.org/2017/01/31/saudi-arabia-bolsters-its-relations-with-sudan-amid-tension-with-egypt.305
  45. “Sudan: People displaced by Sudanese dam project complain of poverty, unemployment”, All Africa, 1 February 2017, http://allafrica.com/stories/201702020105.html. 306
  46. Aaron Maasho, “Egypt, Ethiopia and Sudan hope to break Nile dam talks deadlock in one month”, Reuters, 29 January 2018, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-africanunion-summit-nile/egypt-ethiopia-and-sudan-hope-to-break-nile-dam-talks-deadlock-in-one-month-idUSKBN1FI1LC; “Sisi: Egypt does not want war with Sudan and Ethiopia”, Al Jazeera, 16 January 2018, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/01/sisi-egypt-war-sudan-ethiopia-180116074205823.html; “Egypt wants ‘Sudan out’ of contentious dam talks”, Al Jazeera, 2 January 2018, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/01/egypt-sudan-contentious-dam-talks-180102123313038.html. 307
  47. “Ethiopia to start storing water from Grand Renaissance Dam”, Middle East Monitor, 29 September 2017, https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20170929-ethiopia-to-start-storing-water-from-grand-renaissance-dam; Jean-Daniel Stanley and Pablo L. Clemente, “Increased land subsidence and sea-level rise are submerging Egypt’s Nile Delta coastal margin”, GSA Today, vol. 27, no. 5 (May 2017), http://www.geosociety.org/gsatoday/archive/27/5/article/GSATG312A.1.htm.308
  48. EIA, op. cit. note 3, Tables 6.2.B and 6.3; capacity at year-end 2012 from idem, Table 6.2.B.309
  49. EIA, op. cit. note 3, Tables 6.2.B and 6.3; US Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, “Energy Infrastructure Update for December 2017” (Washington, DC: December 2017), https://www.ferc.gov/legal/staff-reports/2017/dec-energy-infrastructure.pdf. 310
  50. Generation data from EIA, op. cit. note 3, Table 1.10.B.311
  51. Generation data by region from Ibid.; US Department of Energy, “Record precipitation, snowpack in California expected to increase hydro generation in 2017”, Today in Energy, 23 March 2017, https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=30452. 312
  52. Innergex, “Boulder Creek”, http://www.innergex.com/en/site/boulder-creek, viewed March 2018; Innergex, “Upper Lillooet River”, http://www.innergex.com/en/site/upper-lillooet-river, viewed March 2018; Upper Lillooet Hydro Project, “Project”, http://www.upperlillooethydro.com/project, viewed March 2018.313
  53. Based on 2017 year-end capacity of 48,450 MW from System Operator of the Unified Energy System of Russia, op. cit. note 3, and 45,977 MW at the end of 2012, from idem, Report on the Unified Energy System in 2012 (Moscow: 31 January 2013), http://www.so-ups.ru/fileadmin/files/company/reports/disclosure/2013/ues_rep2012.pdf.314
  54. Ibid., both sources.315
  55. RusHydro, “RusHydro inaugurates 320 MW Nizhne-Bureyskaya hydropower plant in the Russian Far East”, press release (Moscow: 3 August 2017), http://www.eng.rushydro.ru/press/news/103978.html.316
  56. System Operator of the Unified Energy System of Russia, op. cit. note 3; idem, op. cit. note 53.317
  57. RusHydro, “RusHydro Group announces its operating results for the 4Q and FY2017”, press release (Moscow: 31 January 2018), http://www.eng.rushydro.ru/press/news/105270.html.318
  58. IHA, personal communication with REN21, April 2018.319
  59. See, for example, IRENA, Electricity Storage and Renewables: Costs and Market to 2030 (Abu Dhabi: October 2017), http://www.irena.org/DocumentDownloads/Publications/IRENA_Electricity_Storage_Costs_2017.pdf. 320
  60. Ibid., p. 30.321
  61. IHA, op. cit. note 58; IHA, Hydropower Status Report 2018, (London: May 2018), http://www.hydropower.org; and sources on pumped storage projects cited elsewhere in this section.322
  62. Ibid.323
  63. China Energy Storage Network, 18 January 2017, http://www.escn.com.cn/news/show-388351.html; International Water Power & Dam Construction, “Converting to pumped storage”, 13 February 2012, http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/features/featureconverting-to-pumped-storage; IHA, op. cit. note 58.324
  64. China Energy Storage Network, 3 January 2018, http://www.escn.com.cn/news/show-487468.html; IHA, op. cit. note 58.325
  65. Alpiq Group, “Alpiq connects western Switzerland’s most powerful pumped storage power station to the grid”, http://www.alpiq.com/portal/en/generation-switzerland/reference-fmhl, viewed March 2018; Alpiq Group, “Forces Motrices Hongrin-Léman S.A. (FMHL)”, http://www.alpiq.com/alpiq-group/our-assets/hydropower/storage-power-plants/forces-motrices-hongrin-lman.jsp, viewed March 2018.326
  66. João Graça Gomes, Portuguese Renewable Energy Association (APREN), personal communication with REN21, March 2018; Energias Endógenas de Portugal, database of electric power plants based on renewable energy sources, http://e2p.inegi.up.pt/, viewed March-April 2018; Energias de Portugal, “Centros produtores”, http://a-nossa-energia.edp.pt/centros_produtores/index.php, viewed March 2018. Capacity value based on Energias Endógenas de Portugal. The Frades II facility is also known as Venda Nova III.327
  67. Voith, “A milestone for hydropower: successful startup of Frades II, the largest variable speed pumped storage plant in Europe”, press release (Heidenheim, Germany: 26 July 2017), http://voith.com/corp-en/news-room___press-releases_97546.html.328
  68. IHA, op. cit. note 1.329
  69. Gomes, op. cit. note 66; Government of Portugal, “Government studies plan to link dams”, 8 February 2018, https://www.portugal.gov.pt/pt/gc21/comunicacao/noticia?i=governo-estuda-plano-de-ligacao-entre-barragens.330
  70. IHA and World Bank, op. cit. note 13; IHA, “Sustainability at the core of IHA’s new strategy and work plan”, 22 September 2017, https://www.hydropower.org/news/sustainability-at-the-core-of-iha%E2%80%99s-new-strategy-and-work-plan.331
  71. IHA and World Bank, op. cit. note 13.332
  72. International Finance Corporation (IFC), “IFC and the Nature Conservancy call for a new approach to achieve sustainable hydropower”, press release (Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: 10 May 2017), http://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/industry_ext_content/ifc_external_corporate_site/hydro+advisory/news/press+releases/ifc+and+the+nature+conservancy+call+for+a+new+approach+to+achieve+sustainable+hydropower.333
  73. IHA, “Workshop Report: Climate resilience for hydropower projects”, 2017 World Hydropower Congress, 8 May 2017, https://www.hydropower.org/sites/default/files/publications-docs/2017%20WHC_session%20report%20-%20WORKSHOP%20-%20Climate%20Resilience.pdf; IHA, personal communication with REN21, April 2018.334
  74. Vladimir Stenek et al., “Climate change and business: hydropower” (Washington, DC: IFC, 2011), https://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/1464ab804aa801b1a2f7f29e0dc67fc6/ClimateRisk_Hydro_Zambia_ExecSummary.pdf?MOD=AJPERES; IHA, “Climate resilience”, https://www.hydropower.org/topics/operations/climate-resilience, viewed May 2018; IHA, “Workshop Report”, op. cit. note 73; “Hydropower supply dries up with climate change”, Deutsche Welle, 1 March 2018, http://www.dw.com/en/hydropower-supply-dries-up-with-climate-change/a-42472070; Keith Johnson, “Hydropower and the challenge of climate change”, 16 March 2015, Foreign Policy, https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/03/16/hydropower-and-the-challenge-of-climate-change. 335
  75. IFC, “IFC helps integrate sustainability into Myanmar’s hydro future”, press release (Yangon, Myanmar: 3 February 2017), http://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/industry_ext_content/ifc_external_corporate_site/hydro+advisory/news/press+releases/ifc+helps+integrate+sustainability+into+myanmars+hydro+future; IFC, “IFC helps Lao PDR’s Ministry of Energy and Mines ramp-up sustainability efforts” press release (Vientiane, Lao PDR: 5 September 2017), http://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/industry_ext_content/ifc_external_corporate_site/hydro+advisory/news/press+releases/ifc+helps+lao+pdrs+ministry+of+energy+and+mines+ramp-up+sustainability+efforts. 336
  76. Timo A. Räsänen et al., “Observed river discharge changes due to hydropower operations in the Upper Mekong Basin”, Journal of Hydrology, vol. 545 (February 2017), https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022169416308125.337
  77. Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol, “Protocol Assessments”, http://www.hydrosustainability.org/Protocol-Assessments.aspx, viewed April 2018.338
  78. Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol, “Kárahnjúkar Hydropower Project”, 7 December 2017, Executive Summary, p. iv, http://www.hydrosustainability.org/IHAHydro4Life/media/ProtocolAssessments/PDF%20Reports/Karahnjukar-Protocol-Assessment--Final-with-Appendices--Reduced-Size.pdf?ext=.pdf.339
  79. Landsvirkjun, “Operations at the Fljótsdalur Hydropower Station largely considered ‘best proven practice’”, 24 January 2018, https://www.landsvirkjun.com/company/mediacentre/news/news-read/operations-at-the-fljotsdalur-hydropower-station-largely-considered-best-proven-practice; Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol, op. cit. note 78.340
  80. IHA, “SEforALL and IHA to partner on new hydropower preparation facility model”, press release (Bonn: 17 November 2017), https://www.hydropower.org/news/seforall-and-iha-to-partner-on-new-hydropower-preparation-facility-model.341
  81. IHA, “Hydropower preparation facility gains support at finance workshop”, 13 February 2018, https://www.hydropower.org/news/hydropower-preparation-facility-gains-support-at-finance-workshop. 342
  82. See, for example, IHA, Activity and Strategy Report 2017-18 (London: February 2018), p. 32, https://www.hydropower.org/publications/iha-activity-and-strategy-report-2017-2018.343
  83. See, for example, Michael Harris, “Smarter hydro”, Hydro Review, vol. 37, no. 1 (2018), http://www.hydroworld.com/articles/hr/print/volume-37/issue-1/cover-story/smarter-hydro.html; GE, Powering the Digital Transformation of Electricity (Boston: 2016), https://www.ge.com/digital/sites/default/files/Power%20Digital%20Solutions%20Product%20Catalog.pdf; Hanno Schoklitsch, “Digitalization is revolutionizing the renewable energy sector”, Renewable Energy World, 8 February 2018, http://www. renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2018/02/digitalization-is-revolutionizing-the-renewable-energy-sector.html. 344
  84. Voith, “Voith at HYDRO 2017: Efficiency increases and better availability thanks to HyService and digital solutions”, press release (Heidenheim, Germany: 10 June 2017), http://voith.com/corp-en/news-room___press-releases_97562.html.345
  85. GE, “Alqueva II – Testing the waters”, https://www.gerenewableenergy.com/stories/testing-the-waters, viewed March 2018.346
  86. Andritz, Annual Report 2017 (Graz, Austria: 2018), pp. 10, 25-26, https://www.andritz.com/group-en/investors/investors-downloads/financial-reports. 347
  87. Frankfurt School-UNEP Collaborating Centre for Climate & Sustainable Energy Finance and Bloomberg New Energy Finance, Global Trends in Renewable Energy Investment 2018 (Frankfurt: 2018), pp. 16, 53, http://fs-unep-centre.org/sites/default/files/publications/gtr2018v2.pdf.348
  88. Ibid.349
  89. Ibid.350
  90. GE, 2017 Annual Report (Boston: 2017), pp. 34-35, https://www.ge.com/investor-relations/sites/default/files/GE_AR17.pdf.351
  91. Andritz, op. cit. note 86, pp. 56, 63.352
  92. Ibid, pp. 56, 63. 353
  93. Voith, Annual Report 2017 (Heidenheim, Germany: December 2017), pp. 122-123, http://voith.com/corp-en/VZ_annual-report-2017_en.pdf. 354
  94. Ibid., p. 119.355

OCEAN ENERGY

  1. See, for example, European Commission (EC), Study on Lessons for Ocean Energy Development (Brussels: April 2017), p. iii, https://publications.europa.eu/s/fEDw.356
  2. Total capacity from International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), Renewable Capacity Statistics 2018 (Abu Dhabi: March 2018), http://www.irena.org/publications/2018/Mar/Renewable-Capacity-Statistics-2018; tidal barrage from Ocean Energy Systems (OES), Annual Report 2017 (Lisbon: March 2018), https://report2017.ocean-energy-systems.org/.357
  3. Net capacity additions of 4.3 MW from IRENA, op. cit. note 2; total installed tidal stream and wave energy capacity from OES, op. cit. note 2, p. 15.358
  4. “Tidal lagoon: £1.3bn Swansea Bay project backed by review”, BBC News, 12 January 2017, http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-38571240; “Q&A: Swansea Bay tidal lagoon – the sticking points”, BBC News, 10 January 2018, http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-42635571; UK Department of Energy & Climate Change, “Review of tidal lagoons”, press release (London: 10 February 2016), https://www.gov.uk/government/news/review-of-tidal-lagoons; Charles Hendry, The Role of Tidal Lagoons – Final, December 2016, https://hendryreview.files.wordpress.com/2016/08/hendry-review-final-report-englishversion.pdf.359
  5. OES, op. cit. note 2, pp. 4, 36.360
  6. EC, op. cit. note 1, pp. 7-14.361
  7. See text and related sources throughout this section.362
  8. EC, op. cit. note 1, pp. 14-20.363
  9. OES, Annual Report 2016 (Lisbon: April 2017), p. 173, https://report2016.ocean-energy-systems.org/.364
  10. Ibid.365
  11. OES, op. cit. note 2, p. 4.366
  12. OES, op. cit. note 9, Executive Summary; OES, op. cit. note 2, Executive Summary.367
  13. EC Ocean Energy Forum, Ocean Energy Strategic Roadmap – Building Ocean Energy for Europe (Brussels: November 2016), https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/maritimeforum/en/node/3962.368
  14. Ocean Energy Europe, “European ocean energy continues its march towards industrialization”, press release (Nantes, France: 25 October 2017), http://www.oceanenergy-europe.eu/press-release-european-ocean-energycontinues-its-march-towards-industrialisation.369
  15. European Marine Energy Centre Ltd., “Marine energy”, http://www.emec.org.uk/marine-energy, viewed April 2018370
  16. Ibid.371
  17. Atlantis Resources, “MeyGen Update – AR1500 turbine deployed in record time”, press release (Edinburgh: 20 February 2017), https://www.atlantisresourcesltd.com/2017/02/20/2225; Atlantis Resources, “MeyGen Update – AR1500 turbine generating to the grid”, press release (Edinburgh: 24 February 2017), https://www.atlantisresourcesltd.com/2017/02/24/meygen-update-ar1500-turbine-generating-grid. The project consists of three turbines from Andritz Hydro Hammerfest (United Kingdom) and one developed and designed by Atlantis Resources (United Kingdom) and Lockheed Martin (United States).372
  18. Atlantis Resources, “MeyGen Operation & Production Update”, press release (Edinburgh: 18 October 2017), https://www.atlantisresourcesltd.com/2017/10/18/meygen-operation-production-update-2.373
  19. Atlantis Resources, “MeyGen”, https://www.atlantisresourcesltd.com/projects/meygen/, viewed March 2018.374
  20. Nova Innovation, “Nova & ELSA third turbine deployed in Shetland tidal array – a world showcase for Scottish renewable innovation”, press release (Edinburgh: 23 February 2017), https://media.wix.com/ugd/36770a_87c2b2545db246c7b2fd7707b239077c.docx?dn=Nova%20T3%20Press%20Release%2023rd%20Feb%202017.docx; Nova Innovation, “Nova Innovation deploys world’s first fully operational offshore tidal array in Scotland”, press release (Edinburgh: August 2016), https://media.wix.com/ugd/efc58c_651189c778284074bc41d080564bcdf8.docx?dn=NOVA%20INNOVATION%20DEPLOYS%20WORLDS%20FIRST%20TIDAL%20ARRAY.docx.375
  21. Nova Innovation, “Pan-European consortium secures funding for tidal turbine subsystem development”, press release (Edinburgh: 28 February 2017), https://docs.wixstatic.com/ugd/36770a_bc123cfd031e48a791365cba47e78fec.pdf; Nova Innovation, “Nova Innovation leads flagship €20 million European tidal energy project”, press release (Edinburgh: 6 July 2017), https://docs.wixstatic.com/ugd/36770a_84e95bfb3e574d429b563a05007f1cd6.pdf.376
  22. Ibid., both sources.377
  23. Scotrenewables Tidal Power, “Scotrenewables installs world’s largest tidal turbine at EMEC for first time”, press release (Edinburgh: 13 October 2016), http://www.emec.org.uk/press-release-scotrenewables-installs-worlds-largest-tidal-turbine-at-emec-for-first-time; Scotrenewables Tidal Power, “Scotrenewables powers through winter storms”, press release (Edinburgh: 16 January 2018), http://www.scotrenewables.com/news; Scotrenewables Tidal Power, “Scotrenewables clocks up the power”, press release (Edinburgh: 10 May 2017), http://www.scotrenewables.com/news.378
  24. Scotrenewables Tidal Power, “Scotrenewables powers through winter storms”, op. cit. note 23; Scotrenewables Tidal Power, “Scotrenewables power Orkney grid”, press release (Edinburgh: 13 September 2017), http://www.scotrenewables.com/news.379
  25. Scotrenewables Tidal Power, “The concept”, http://www.scotrenewables.com/technology-development/the-concept, viewed April 2018.380
  26. Naval Energies, “Official start of the construction of the Naval Energies/OpenHydro tidal-turbine plant in Cherbourg”, press release (La Montagne, France: 24 July 2017), https://www.naval-energies.com/en/news/lancement-officiel-de-la-construction-de-lusine-dhydroliennes-de-naval-energiesopenhydro-a-cherbourg; OpenHydro, “EDF and Naval Energies have announced the completion of the Paimpol-Bréhat tidal energy demonstration project, following successful deployment and data collection”, press release (Dublin: 25 October 2017), http://www.openhydro.com/OpenHydro/media/Documents/Paimpol-Brehat-Project-Closes-25th-October-2017.pdf.381
  27. EDF Energies Nouvelles, “Emerging energies”, https://www.edf-energies-nouvelles.com/en/projectdevelopment/other-services, viewed March 2018; OpenHydro, “Projects”, http://www.openhydro.com/Projects, viewed March 2018; OpenHydro, op. cit. note 26.382
  28. Guinard Energies, “The hydrokinetic turbine exported”, 6 November 2017, http://www.guinard-energies.bzh/en/the-hydrokinetic-turbine-exported.383
  29. OES, op. cit. note 2, p. 58.384
  30. Songwei Sheng et al., “Model research and open sea tests of 100 kW wave energy convertor Sharp Eagle Wanshan”, Renewable Energy, vol. 113 (December 2017), pp. 587-95, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2017.06.019.385
  31. Open Sea Operating Experience to Reduce Wave Energy Cost (OPERA), “Testing of the OPERA project’s novel air turbine has already started at the Mutriku wave power plant: turbine operated at full power on the first day of testing”, 22 May 2017, http://opera-h2020.eu/?p=772.386
  32. OPERA, “MARMOK-A-5 celebrates its first anniversary in the water connected to the grid”, 14 December 2017, http://opera-h2020.eu/?p=1002.387
  33. Waves4Power, “World unique wave power breakthrough”, press release (Partille, Sweden: 2 June 2017), https://www.waves4power.com/w4p-news-updates/press-release-world-unique-wave-power-breakthrough; Waves4Power, “The first tests of wave power at Runde are now accomplished and the wave power buoy WaveEL 3.0 is towed to Fiskåholmen”, press release (Partille, Sweden: 28 Nov 2017), https://www.waves4power.com/w4pnews-updates/the-first-tests-of-wave-power-at-runde-are-now-accomplished-and-the-wave-power-buoy-waveel-3-0-is-towed-to-fiskaholmen.388
  34. MarineEnergy.biz, “Seabased cancels Sotenäs wave park expansion. Continues R&D”, 30 October 2017, https://marineenergy.biz/2017/10/30/seabased-cancels-sotenas-wave-park-expansion-continues-rd/; Andrew Williams, “Sotenäs Wave Energy Plant reaches grid connection milestone”, Maritime Journal, 3 February 2016, http://www.maritimejournal.com/news101/marine-renewable-energy/sotenas-wave-energy-plant-reaches-grid-connection-milestone.389
  35. MaRINET2, “MaRINET2 awards €1.3m to develop the next-generation of offshore renewables” 7 July 2017, http://www.marinet2.eu/facilities/rules-procedures-2; MaRINET2, “Timetable of calls”, http://www.marinet2.eu/facilities/timetable-calls, viewed March 2018.390
  36. Interreg NWE, “FORESEA: Project summary”, http://www.nweurope.eu/projects/project-search/funding-oceanrenewable-energy-through-strategic-european-action, viewed April 2018; Ocean Energy Europe, “FORESEA back 6 offshore renewable energy technologies”, 25 October 2017, http://www.oceanenergy-europe.eu/foresea-backs-6-offshore-renewable-energy-technologies.391
  37. Interreg NWE, op. cit. note 36.392
  38. Wave Energy Scotland, “About us”, http://www.waveenergyscotland.co.uk, viewed April 2018.393
  39. Wave Energy Scotland, “Programmes”, http://www.waveenergyscotland.co.uk/programmes, viewed April 2018.394
  40. US Department of Energy (DOE), “Plans finalized for national wave energy test facility”, 10 July 2017, https://www.energy.gov/eere/water/articles/plans-finalized-national-wave-energy-test-facility; US DOE, “Northwest National Marine Renewable Energy Center will support innovation in wave energy technologies”, press release (Washington, DC: 21 December 2016), https://energy.gov/articles/energy-department-announces-investment-wave-energy-test-facility. The US DOE awarded USD 40 million to the task in 2016.395
  41. US DOE, “Energy Department announces up to $12 million for projects to advance wave energy”, 15 June 2017, https://www.energy.gov/eere/articles/energy-department-announces-12-million-projects-advance-wave-energy.396
  42. US DOE, “Overcoming a major wave energy challenge”, 1 June 2017, https://www.energy.gov/eere/water/articles/overcoming-major-wave-energy-challenge.397
  43. Ocean Renewable Power Company, “ORPC successfully concludes power take-off testing at UMaine”, press release (Portland and Orono, ME: 21 June 2017), https://umaine.edu/news/blog/2017/06/21/orpc-successfully-concludes-power-take-off-testing-umaine/.398
  44. China’s State Oceanic Administration, “Announcement of the 13th Five-Year Plan on ocean energy”, 1 January 2017, http://www.soa.gov.cn/zwgk/zcgh/kxcg/201701/t20170112_54473.html; OES, op. cit. note 2, p. 56.399
  45. EC, op. cit. note 1.400
  46. Andrea Copping et al., Pacific Region Marine Renewables Environmental Regulatory Workshop Report (Portland, OR: Oregon Wave Energy Trust, March 2017), p. 1, https://tethys.pnnl.gov/sites/default/files/publications/OWET-Workshop-Report-final.pdf.401
  47. Andrea Copping, The State of Knowledge for Environmental Effects Driving Consenting/Permitting for the Marine Renewable Energy Industry (Richland, WA: Ocean Energy Systems and Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, January 2018), https://tethys.pnnl.gov/publications/state-knowledge-environmental-effects-driving-consentingpermitting-marine-renewable.402

SOLAR PV

  1. Frankfurt School-UNEP Centre for Climate & Sustainable Energy Finance (FS-UNEP Centre) and Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF), Global Trends in Renewable Energy Investment 2018 (Frankfurt: April 2018), p. 12, http://fs-unep-centre.org/sites/default/files/publications/gtr2018v2.pdf. 403
  2. China from Frank Haugwitz, Asia Europe Clean Energy (Solar) Advisory Co (AECEA), personal communication with REN21, 22 January 2018; India from Mercom India Research, cited in Priya Sanjay, “India reaches 20 GW in cumulative installed solar capacity”, Mercom India, 30 January 2018, https://mercomindia.com/india-reaches-20-gw-installed-solar-capacity/, and from Arti Mishra Saran, “5 charts to capture 2017”, Bridge to India, 31 January 2018, http://www.bridgetoindia.com/5-charts-capture-2017/; Japan from Gaëtan Masson, Becquerel Institute and International Energy Agency (IEA) Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme (PVPS), Brussels, personal communication with REN21, 29 March 2018; United States is net additions and is based on data from US Energy Information Administration (EIA), Electric Power Monthly with Data for December 2017 (Washington, DC: February 2018), Table 6.1, https://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly/archive/february2018.pdf.404
  3. At least 98 GWdc added in 2017 (up from 76 GW in 2016) for a year-end total of 402.5 GW, from IEA PVPS, Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2018 (Paris: April 2018), p. 4, http://www.iea-pvps.org/fileadmin/dam/public/report/statistics/IEA-PVPS_-_A_Snapshot_of_Global_PV_-_1992-2017.pdf. A minimum of 397 GW was in place at year’s end with a high level of certainty, and another 5.7 GW in non-IEA PVPS reporting countries, off-grid installations, etc. from idem, p. 6. Data in the IEA PVPS report are preliminary and were the best available as of 16 March 2018. A preliminary estimate of 98.9 GW was added for a total of 400 GW, from Christian Westermeier, SolarPower Europe, “SolarPower Summit 2018 – Global Solar Markets Update”, March 2018; an estimated 102 GW was added for a global total of 405 GW, from China Photovoltaic Industry Association, cited in Liu Yuanyuan, “China’s solar PV module exports reached 37.9 GW in 2017”, Renewable Energy World, 12 March 2018, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2018/03/china-s-pv-module-exports-reached-37-9-gw-in-2017.html; and 92.9 GW was added for cumulative capacity of 377 GW (based on shipments to first buyer, and tracked since mid-1970s), from Paula Mints, “How much solar capacity exists in the world?” Renewable Energy World, 16 April 2018, https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2018/04/3-3-on-solar-pv-how-much-solar-capacity-exists-in-the-world.html. A few countries report data officially in alternating current (AC) (e.g., Canada, Chile, Japan since 2012 and Spain); these data were converted to direct current (DC) by relevant sources provided in this section for consistency across countries. The difference between DC and AC power can range from as little as 5% to as much as 50%. Most utility-scale solar PV plants built in 2017 have an AC-DC ratio between 1.1 and 1.5, from IEA PVPS, Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2018, op. cit. this note, p. 11. The GSR 2018 attempts to report all solar PV data in DC units, and only capacity that is in operation at year’s end. Figure 24 based on data from IEA PVPS, Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2018, op. cit. this note, and from IEA PVPS, Trends in Photovoltaic Applications 2017: Survey Report of Selected IEA Countries Between 1992 and 2016 (Paris: 2017), p. 7, http://iea-pvps.org/fileadmin/dam/public/report/statistics/IEA-PVPS_Trends_2017_in_Photovoltaic_Applications.pdf. 405
  4. Number of panels based on 2017 additions and average of 270 watts per panel, from Gaëtan Masson, Becquerel Institute and IEA PVPS, personal communications with REN21, March-May 2016 and 29 March 2018. 406
  5. Based on data for 2016 and 2017 from IEA PVPS, op. cit. note 3, both sources, and from data and sources provided throughout this section.407
  6. Based on data for 2016 and 2017 from IEA PVPS, Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2018, op. cit. note 3, p. 15, from IEA PVPS, Trends in Photovoltaic Applications 2017, op. cit. note 3, p. 75, and from data and sources provided throughout this section.408
  7. Fifth consecutive year based on 2015 being the third consecutive year, and Asia’s share of global additions, all from Masson, op. cit. note 4, and from country-specific sources provided throughout this section. 409
  8. Top countries from IEA PVPS, Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2018, op. cit. note 3, p. 10; 84% based on global additions of at least 98 GWdc, from idem, p. 4, and on additions of the top five countries (China, the United States, India, Japan and Turkey), from data and sources provided throughout this section.410
  9. IEA PVPS, Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2018, op. cit. note 3, p. 10. Figure 25 based on data (including 0.4 GW added in Italy for a year-end total of 19.7 GW) from IEA PVPS, op. cit. note 3, both sources, and on national data and sources for China, Germany, Japan and the United States provided throughout this section.411
  10. IEA PVPS, Trends in Photovoltaic Applications 2017, op. cit. note 3, pp. 9-10; IEA PVPS, Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2018, op. cit. note 3, pp. 3-4; Michael Schmela, “SolarPower Webinar: Global market outlook 2017-2021”, SolarPower Europe, June 2017, http://www.solarpowereurope.org/reports/global-market-outlook-2017/. 412
  11. Every continent and 29 countries based on data from IEA PVPS, Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2018, op. cit. note 3, pp. 3-4, 15. At least 52 countries had 100 MW or more of capacity, from Becquerel Institute, personal communication with REN21, 29 March 2018.413
  12. Becquerel Institute, op. cit. note 11; IEA PVPS, Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2018, op. cit. note 3, p. 12. The order in 2016 was Germany, Japan, Italy, Belgium and Australia, from IEA PVPS Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2016 (Paris: April 2017), p. 12, http://www.iea-pvps.org/fileadmin/dam/public/report/statistics/IEA-PVPS_-_A_Snapshot_of_Global_PV_-_1992-2017.pdf, and from Becquerel Institute, provided by Philippe Macé, Becquerel Institute, personal communication with REN21, 10 May 2017. 414
  13. Masson, op. cit. note 2; IEA PVPS, Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2018, op. cit. note 3, p. 14; SolarPower Europe, Global Market Outlook for Solar Power 2017-2021 (Brussels: 2017), p. 11, http://www.solarpowereurope.org/reports/global-market-outlook-2017/; Gregory F. Nemet et al., Characteristics of Low-Priced Solar Photovoltaic Systems in the United States (Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL), January 2016), p. 1, https://emp.lbl.gov/sites/all/files/lbnl-1004062.pdf. In many markets, including in Africa, Asia and Latin America, solar PV is viewed as a way to meet renewable energy and climate mitigation targets quickly and cost-effectively, from Mohit Anand, GTM Research, cited in Mike Munsell, “GTM Research: Global solar PV installations grew 34% in 2015”, Sonnenseite, 23 January 2016, http://www.sonnenseite.com/en/energy/gtm-research-global-solar-pv-installations-grew-34-in-2015.html; and International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), Solar PV in Africa: Costs and Markets (Abu Dhabi: September 2016), p. 9, https://www.irena.org/DocumentDownloads/Publications/IRENA_Solar_PV_Costs_Africa_2016.pdf. Reduce CO2 emissions from, for example, Masson, op. cit. note 2, and from China National Energy Administration (NEA), National Energy Board, “Solar energy development 13th five-year plan”, December 2016, accessed via http://zfxxgk.nea.gov.cn/auto87/201612/t20161216_2358.htm (using Google Translate).415
  14. IEA PVPS, Trends in Photovoltaic Applications 2017, op. cit. note 3, p. 72.416
  15. Ibid., p. 38; SolarPower Europe, op. cit. note 13, p. 57; Jennifer Runyon, “Solar outlook 2017: The global market marches on”, Renewable Energy World, January/February 2017, pp. 14-17; Paula Mints, “Notes from the solar underground: 2016 – what just happened?” SPV Market Research, 8 December 2016, https://paulamspv.com/2016/12/04/notes-from-the-solar-underground-2016-what-just-happened/. 417
  16. Challenges from IEA PVPS, Trends in Photovoltaic Applications 2017, op. cit. note 3, pp. 45, 72; significant portions from text and sources throughout this section. 418
  17. China added 53.06 GW, from NEA, cited in “Energy Bureau conference informed of 2017 renewable energy grid operation”, 24 January 2018, http://shupeidian.bjx.com.cn/news/20180124/876448.shtml (using Google Translate), and from IEA PVPS, Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2018, op. cit. note 3, p. 10. Global additions in 2015 were 50,703 MW, from IEA PVPS, Trends in Photovoltaic Applications 2017, op. cit. note 3, p. 75.419
  18. Haugwitz, op. cit. note 2.420
  19. Cumulative capacity of 131.14 GW, from IEA PVPS, Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2018, op. cit. note 3, p. 10 (based on the NEA official figure of over 130 GW grid-connected capacity plus an estimated 1 GW of off-grid capacity), from Becquerel Institute, personal communication with REN21, April 2018; cumulative capacity of 130.25 GW from NEA, “National power industry statistics list”, 22 January 2018, http://www.nea.gov.cn/2018-01/22/c_136914154.htm (using Google Translate); AECEA, “China 2017 – what a year with 53 GW of added solar PV! What’s in for 2018!”, Briefing Paper – China Solar PV Development, January 2018 (provided by Frank Haugwitz, AECEA). Target, economic development and environmental protection from NEA, op. cit. note 13; poverty alleviation, from Brian Publicover, “China unveils 5.16GW of PV under poverty relief scheme”, PV Magazine, 18 October 2016, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2016/10/18/china-unveils-5-16gw-of-pv-under-poverty-relief-scheme_100026544/. Figure 26 based on historical data from IEA PVPS, Trends in Photovoltaic Applications 2017, op. cit. note 3, on year-end 2017 additions for Italy, France and Spain from IEA PVPS, Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2018, op. cit. note 3, and on country-specific data and sources provided throughout this section for Australia, China, Germany, India, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States. 421
  20. More than half of global demand based on data and sources throughout this section, including IEA PVPS, Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2018, op. cit. note 3; more than half of global manufacturing from GTM Research, PV Pulse, March 2018; wide-reaching impact from several sources noted throughout this section as well as from Meishi Tan, “How Chinese policies can control the global PV market”, Apricum Group, 16 May 2017, https://www.apricum-group.com/how-china-can-control-the-global-pv-market/, and from Mints, op. cit. note 3.422
  21. Gaëtan Masson, Becquerel Institute, personal communication with REN21, April 2018. Several other policies, including China’s Top Runner programme and policies for poverty alleviation, also helped to drive the market, from idem.423
  22. Rush followed by lag from Joe Ryan, “Solar industry braces with looming glut eroding panel prices”, Bloomberg, 23 August 2016, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-08-23/solar-industry-braces-as-looming-glut-threatens-to-erode-prices; Frank Haugwitz, AECEA, personal communication with REN21, 8 May 2017; second half from Meishi Tan, “The hungry dragon: explaining China’s 50 GW+ PV market in 2017”, PV-Tech, 15 December 2017, https://www.pv-tech.org/guest-blog/the-hungry-dragon-explaining-chinas-50gw-pv-market-in-2017.424
  23. Tan, op. cit. note 22. The downward FIT adjustment also will apply to distributed projects feeding 100% of their output into the grid.425
  24. Tan, op. cit. note 20; FTI Consulting, “Chinese solar market is growing more aggressively than wind”, Intelligence Spark, 16 October 2017. Distributed solar PV description based on the following: AECEA, “Briefing Paper – China Solar PV Development”, September 2017 (provided by Haugwitz); AECEA, op. cit. note 19; Ankita Rajeshwari, “China’s solar PV installations reach almost 10 GW in Q1 of 2018”, Mercom India, 26 April 2018, https://mercomindia.com/china-solar-10gw-q1-2018/; Eric Wesoff, “New China energy policy focuses on distributed solar and innovative financing tools”, Greentech Media, 5 September 2014, https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/New-China-Energy-Policy-Focuses-on-Distributed-Solar-and-New-Financing-Tool. Developers have been using the associated FITs to build projects up to 20 MW in size, from Tan, op. cit. note 22. 426
  25. About 19.44 GW added (up 3.7 times over 2016), from NEA, “National Energy Administration press conference introduces related energy situation, etc.”, 24 January 2018, http://www.nea.gov.cn/2018-01/24/c_136921015.htm (using Google Translate); 2016 figure of 4.2 GW added from Tan, op. cit. note 22; figure of 30 GW (29.66 GW) total, from NEA, op. cit. this note. Three-fold increase in the market and 2 GW, from AECEA, op. cit. note 19, and from NEA, op. cit. note 17.427
  26. Tan, op. cit. note 20; Frank Haugwitz, AECEA, personal communication with REN21, 22 December 2017. For distributed projects designed to feed 100% of their electricity into the grid, China reduced the FIT in 2017 to the level of regular ground-mounted projects, from idem.428
  27. NEA, op. cit. note 25.429
  28. Ibid.430
  29. Ibid.; AECEA, op. cit. note 19.431
  30. NEA, op. cit. note 25.432
  31. Ken Kingery, “Air pollution casts shadow over solar energy production”, Duke University, Pratt School of Engineering, 26 June 2017, http://pratt.duke.edu/news/solar-pollution; Feng Hao, “Dirty air takes shine off solar power”, chinadialogue, 20 October 2017, https://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/10157-Dirty-air-takes-shine-off-solar-power.433
  32. Annual generation of 118.2 TWh and increase over 2016 from NEA, op. cit. note 17; shares of generation nationally and in five provinces from AECEA, op. cit. note 19.434
  33. The United States added 10.6 GW for a total of 51 GW, from IEA PVPS, Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2018, op. cit. note 3, p. 15; and added 10,608 MW for a total of 53.3 GW, from US Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA), “After back-to-back years of double-digit growth, U.S. solar passes 50 GW milestone”, 15 March 2018, https://www.seia.org/blog/after-back-back-years-double-digit-growth-us-solar-passes-50-gw-milestone, and from GTM Research and SEIA, U.S. Solar Market Insight: 2017 Year in Review, Executive Summary (Boston: March 2018), p. 9, https://www.greentechmedia.com/research/subscription/u-s-solar-market-insight. The United States added an estimated 8,173 MW (3,459.1 MW of small-scale plus 4,713.9 MW of utility-scale facilities) of solar PV capacity in 2017, for a total of 42,888.9 MW, from EIA, op. cit. note 2, Table 6.1. These data omit capacity from facilities with a total generator nameplate capacity less than 1 MW, from EIA, op. cit. this note.435
  34. Second consecutive year based on solar PV being the largest source of new US generating capacity in 2016, from Mark Bolinger et al., Utility-scale Solar 2016: An Empirical Analysis of Project Cost, Performance, and Pricing Trends in the United States (Berkeley, CA: LBNL, September 2017), p. ii, https://emp.lbl.gov/sites/default/files/utility-scale-solar-2016-report.pdf. Leading source in 2017 based on US additions of 8,173 MW of solar PV capacity (utility-scale plus small-scale), 6,257 MW of wind power capacity, and 5,984.6 MW (net) of natural gas capacity, from EIA, op. cit. note 2, Table 6.1, https://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly/archive/february2018.pdf. Note that EIA data are net additions and omit plants with a total generator nameplate capacity below 1 MW. 436
  35. Data for top states from GTM Research and SEIA, op. cit. note 33, p. 9. California had 21,074 MW (about 40% of the country’s total capacity) in operation at end-2017, from SEIA, op. cit. note 33. 437
  36. Solar PV accounted for more than 10% of total electricity generation in California, Hawaii, Nevada, Vermont and Washington, DC during 2017, and for more than 5% in Arizona, Massachusetts and Utah, based on data from EIA, op. cit. note 2, Tables 1.17.B and 1.3.B.438
  37. GTM Research and SEIA, op. cit. note 33, p. 9; Mike Munsell and Stephen Lacey, “US solar installs fall to their lowest level since 2015, as uncertainty swirls and prices rise”, Greentech Media, 14 December 2017, https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/us-solar-installs-fall-to-their-lowest-level-since-2015. California is home to nearly half of US rooftop solar PV installations, from Jacques Leslie, “Utilities grapple with rooftop solar and the new energy landscape”, Yale Environment 360, 31 August 2017, http://e360.yale.edu/features/utilities-grapple-with-rooftop-solar-and-the-new-energy-landscape.439
  38. Based on 2017 data (including 6,234 MWdc of utility-scale and 2,227 MWdc of residential solar PV capacity installed), from GTM Research and SEIA, op. cit. note 33, pp. 5, 12, and on 2016 data (including 10,593 MWdc of utility-scale installations and 2,583 MWdc of residential installations), from GTM Research and SEIA, U.S. Solar Market Insight: 2016 Year in Review, Executive Summary (Boston: March 2017), pp. 10, 11, https://www.greentechmedia.com/research. The residential sector contracted due to weakness in California, which is home to almost half of US rooftop systems, and in major northeast markets, from GTM Research and SEIA, op. cit. note 33, p. 11. 440
  39. Non-residential installations were 2,147 MWdc in 2017, from GTM Research and SEIA, op. cit. note 33, p. 12. 441
  40. Herman K. Trabish, “As solar booms, utilities look to build new business models with strategic investment”, Utility Dive, 14 March 2017, http://www.utilitydive.com/news/as-solar-booms-utilities-look-to-build-new-business-models-with-strategic/437899/; “US solar costs fall below $1/watt; battery price drop accelerates storage impact”, New Energy Update, 4 July 2017, http://analysis.newenergyupdate.com/pv-insider/us-solar-costs-fall-below-1watt-battery-price-drop-accelerates-storage-impact. State mandates drove almost all utility-scale installations in 2015, about half in 2016, and 36% of projects under development as of March 2017, but almost all new procurement was non-mandate driven as of early 2017, from Trabish, op. cit. this note. The most notable corporate deal was a 200 MW PPA between Apple and NV Energy, the largest US deal ever signed between a corporation and an electric utility, from “Corporations purchased record amounts of clean power in 2017”, BNEF, 22 January 2018, https://about.bnef.com/blog/corporations-purchased-record-amounts-of-clean-power-in-2017/. 442
  41. Some utilities from Herman K. Trabish, “Net metering debates rev up, but regulators are skeptical of utility proposals”, Utility Dive, 10 August 2017, http://www.utilitydive.com/news/net-metering-debates-rev-up-but-regulators-are-skeptical-of-utility-propos/448703/; Leslie, op. cit. note 37; Hiroko Tabuchi, “Rooftop solar dims under pressure from utility lobbyists”, New York Times, 8 July 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/08/climate/rooftop-solar-panels-tax-credits-utility-companies-lobbying.html; Christian Roselund, “Changing tides: utilities and solar”, PV Magazine, 13 November 2017, https://pv-magazine-usa.com/2017/11/13/changing-tides-utilities-and-solar/. As of mid-2017, there were 42 proceedings in 25 states plus Washington, DC to increase fees for residential customers with rooftop solar PV, from North Carolina Clean Energy Technology Center, cited in Trabish, op. cit. this note. Other aims to diversify from Trabish, op. cit. note 40; Roselund, op. cit. this note. See also Sheryl Carter and Elisheva Mittelman, “Why are utilities going down clean energy paths? It makes good business sense”, North American Windpower, 15 March 2018, https://nawindpower.com/why-are-utilities-going-down-clean-energy-paths-it-makes-good-business-sense. In response to solar PV’s increasing cost-competitiveness with natural gas generation, many US utilities are shifting away from PPAs in favour of project ownership and cost recovery from customers through electric rates, from Chris Martin et al., “Utilities shifting away from wind, solar PPAs”, Renewable Energy World, 8 August 2017, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2017/08/utilities-shifting-away-from-wind-solar-ppas.html.443
  42. GTM Research and SEIA, op. cit. note 33, p. 12. An estimated 6,234 MWdc of utility capacity was installed, from idem.444
  43. India added 9.1 GW, from Becquerel Institute, op. cit. note 11, and from IEA PVPS, Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2018, op. cit. note 3, p. 15; added 9 GW, from Saran, op. cit. note 2; added 9,629 MW, from Priya Sanjay, “Indian solar installations grew by 123% to reach a record 9.6 GW in 2017”, Mercom India, 22 February 2018, https://mercomindia.com/indian-solar-installations-market-update/; and added 8,339 MW based on data for end-2017 from Government of India, Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), “Physical progress (achievements)”, https://mnre.gov.in/physical-progress-achievements, viewed 30 January 2018, and for end-2016 from idem, viewed 19 January 2017. In 2016, India added 4,313 MW, from Sanjay, op. cit. this note; and added 4 GW based on data from Government of India, MNRE, op. cit. this note, viewed 19 January 2017, and from idem, viewed 1 February 2016.445
  44. Sixth and year-end total from IEA PVPS, Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2018, op. cit. note 3, p. 10. India’s year-end total was 19.6 GW, from Sanjay, op. cit. note 43; and was 17,394 MW based on data for end-2017 from Government of India, MNRE, op. cit. note 43, viewed 30 January 2018, and for end-2016 from idem, viewed 19 January 2017. 446
  45. Top source and 45% of new capacity installations from Mercom India Research, op. cit. note 2, and from Saran, op. cit. note 2; followed by wind power, and ahead of coal, from Wendy Prabhu, “Solar was the top source of new power capacity addition in 2017 for the first time in India”, Mercom India, 16 January 2018, https://mercomindia.com/solar-top-renewable-source-india-2017/.447
  46. Sanjay, op. cit. note 2; first to pass 3 GW from Sanjay, op. cit. note 43.448
  47. Tom Kenning, “India hits 10GW of solar – Bridge to India”, PV-Tech, 18 November 2016, http://www.pv-tech.org/news/india-hits-10gw-of-solar-bridge-to-india.449
  48. Share of 91% from Becquerel Institute, op. cit. note 11; share of 90% (based on large-scale total of 8,634 MW) in 2017 from Sanjay, op. cit. note 43. Large-scale plants also account for almost 90% of cumulative capacity in India, from SolarPower Europe, op. cit. note 13, p. 10. India added 9 GW of utility-scale installations plus 887 MW of rooftop solar, from Bridge to India, “2017, a year of some ‘highs’ but many ‘lows’”, 20 December 2017, http://www.bridgetoindia.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Weekly-2017-a-year-of-some-highs-but-many-lows.pdf.450
  49. Fastest growing from Anindya Upadhyay, “India has a new secret weapon for its 100-GW solar goal”, Renewable Energy World, 8 March 2018, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2018/03/india-has-a-new-secret-weapon-for-its-solar-goal.html; additions and year-end total from Becquerel Institute, op. cit. note 11. Rooftop additions were 0.8 GW, from Saran, op. cit. note 2; and 995 MW, from Sanjay, op. cit. note 43. At year’s end, total rooftop capacity was nearly 1.6 GW, from idem; and the total was 982.3 MW, from Government of India, MNRE, op. cit. note 43, viewed 30 January 2018. In early 2018, the national rooftop target for the 2017-2018 financial year was reduced nearly 5 GW, to 1 GW, from Tildy Bayar, “India reduces rooftop solar target”, Decentralized Energy, 30 January 2018, http://www.decentralized-energy.com/articles/2018/01/india-reduces-rooftop-solar-target.html, and from Sushma U N, “Dark clouds: India has quietly downscaled its rooftop solar power targets”, Quartz India, 23 January 2018, https://qz.com/1180435/india-has-quietly-downscaled-its-rooftop-solar-power-target/. 451
  50. Saumy Prateek, “Higher power tariffs, not policy support, driving India’s rooftop market”, Mercom India, 24 November 2017, https://mercomindia.com/power-tariffs-policy-rooftop-market/; “Indian rooftop solar market growing at over 80% annually”, Bridge to India, 18 July 2017, http://www.bridgetoindia.com/indian-rooftop-solar-market-growing-80-annually/. Average retail electricity prices in India increased 22% over the five years leading up to late 2017, from “Accelerating India’s clean energy transition”, BNEF, 28 November 2017, https://about.bnef.com/blog/accelerating-indias-clean-energy-transition/. 452
  51. Bayar, op. cit. note 49.453
  52. Sushma U N, “Silver lining: nearly 40% of all new power capacity in India this year is solar”, Quartz India, 21 November 2017, https://qz.com/1134798/solar-power-accounts-for-nearly-40-of-indias-new-power-generation-capacity/; “Changing demand-supply landscape in the Indian solar market”, Bridge to India, 23 October 2017, http://www.bridgetoindia.com/changing-demand-supply-landscape-indian-solar-market/; Sushma U N, “Shine on: after a dull 2017, India’s solar power sector is making a comeback”, Quartz India, 7 January 2018, https://qz.com/1173641/indias-solar-power-sector-is-making-a-comeback-after-a-dull-2017/; Sanjay, op. cit. note 43; Bridge to India, op. cit. note 48. Regions with lack of transmission structure (mainly in states of northern India – Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttarpradesh – and Tamil Nadu in southern India, from Manoj Singh, India Power Corporation Limited, personal communication with REN21, 7 April 2018. 454
  53. Saumy Prateek, “Over 2 GW of solar tenders postponed due to uncertainty around safeguard duty”, Mercom India, 27 February 2018, https://mercomindia.com/over-2gw-tender-postponed/; tender issuance was down 37% (to 7 GW) in 2017 relative to 2015, from Bridge to India, op. cit. note 48.455
  54. Bridge to India, op. cit. note 48; pipeline of 10.6 GW from Sanjay, op. cit. note 43. The government expects to bid out 30 GW of solar power capacity in FY 2018-19, and the rest (37 GW) by FY 2019-20, from Singh, op. cit. note 52.456
  55. Contracted by 13% (following a steeper decline in 2016), fourth for additions, and Japan added an estimated 7 GW for a total of 49.04 GW, all from Becquerel Institute, op. cit. note 11, and from IEA PVPS, Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2018, op. cit. note 3, p. 10; total of nearly 50 GW from Brian Publicover, “Japan to install up to 7 GW in 2018 despite cancellation of 14.6 GW of approved capacity – report”, PV Magazine, 15 February 2018, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2018/02/15/japan-to-install-up-to-7-gw-in-2018-despite-cancellation-of-14-6-gw-of-approved-capacity-report/. 457
  56. Becquerel Institute, op. cit. note 11.458
  57. Ibid. The plan was to start shifting from uncapped FITs for solar PV to tenders in 2017 for systems larger than 2 MW, from SolarPower Europe, op. cit. note 13, p. 20.459
  58. Hironao Matsubara, Institute for Sustainable Energy Policies, Tokyo, personal communication with REN21, 1 May 2018. Final approvals totalled 41 MW, compared with the 500 MW offered by the government, from idem. See also, “The way Asia pays for clean energy is being upended”, Bloomberg, 27 November 2017, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-11-27/auctions-upend-how-asia-pays-for-clean-energy-slashing-costs; Aaron Sheldrick, “Japan’s first solar auction pushes prices down by nearly a quarter”, Reuters, 22 November 2017, https://www.reuters.com/article/japan-solar-auction/japans-first-solar-auction-pushes-prices-down-by-nearly-a-quarter-idUSL3N1NS1VL. Reasons for approved projects below the offered capacity included high deposit requirements and rules of participation that discouraged potential bidders, from RTS Corporation, “Tender results and new directions for FY2018”, Solar Asset Management Asia, 9 February 2018, https://solarassetmanagement.asia/news/2018/2/9/tender-results-and-new-directions-for-fy-2018, and from Arnulf Jaeger-Waldau, European Commission (EC) Joint Research Centre, personal communication with REN21, 12 April 2018. High hurdles to overcome in order to bid in the tender, from Matsubara, op. cit. this note, 2 April 2018. Other reasons cited include that the government did not provide enough guarantees regarding grid connection, land and power off-take, from Martin Tengler, BNEF, cited in Becky Beetz, “Japan: disappointing first auction; plans for 200 GW solar by 2050”, PV Magazine, 22 January 2018, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2018/01/22/japan-disappointing-first-auction-plans-for-200-gw-solar-by-2050/. In 2017 the government also cancelled almost 15 GW of solar PV projects that had been certified for construction under the FIT, from Matsubara, op. cit. this note, 2 April 2018.460
  59. Shipments for residential applications were 1,138 MW in 2017, down from 1,244 MW in 2016, 1,675 MW in 2015, 2,150 MW in 2014 and 2,261 MW in 2013, all from Japan Photovoltaic Industry Association, http://www.jpea.gr.jp/document/figure/index.html, viewed April 2018, provided by Matsubara, op. cit. note 58, 2 April 2018.461
  60. Based on market size of about JPY 51 billion in 2016 and about the same size in 2017, and assuming battery system costs of roughly JPY 2 million, using data from http://www.itmedia.co.jp/smartjapan/articles/1705/10/news024.html, viewed April 2018, all provided by Matsubara, op. cit. note 58, 2 April 2018. The market for residential solar PV-plus-storage expanded in 2017 and is expected to continue increasing in 2018 and beyond, from Becquerel Institute, op. cit. note 11.462
  61. Matsubara, op. cit. note 58, 2 April 2018.463
  62. Ibid., 2 April and 1 May 2018. The day was 14 May 2017, from idem. Note that if more nuclear power plants are restarted, curtailment in the Kyushu area will increase under rules of the Organisation for Cross-regional Coordination of Transmission Operators, from idem. For more on curtailment in Japan, see, for example, Brian Publicover, “In depth: Japan’s PV boom sparks curtailment debate”, RECHARGE, 28 September 2016, http://www.rechargenews.com/solar/869457/in-depth-japans-pv-boom-sparks-curtailment-debate, and Andy Colthorpe, “Japan set to OK auctions as power company applies curtailment rules”, PV-Tech, 9 February 2016, https://www.pv-tech.org/news/japan-set-to-ok-auctions-as-power-company-applies-curtailment-rules. 464
  63. Matsubara, op. cit. note 58, 2 April and 1 May 2018.465
  64. Data for share of generation in 2017 and 2016 from Matsubara, op. cit. note 58, 2 April 2018. Figure for 2017 is a preliminary estimate by ISEP, based on data from Japanese Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry. Data for 2015 from Renewable Energy Institute, cited in Christian Roselund, “Solar provides 4.3% of Japan’s electricity during 2016”, PV Magazine, 20 January 2017, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2017/01/20/solar-provides-4-3-of-japans-electricity-during-2016/.466
  65. Turkey added 2.6 GW for a total of 3.4 GW, from IEA PVPS, Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2018, op. cit. note 3, p. 15; connected 1.79 GW to the grid in 2017 (up from 570 MW in 2016), from Michael Schmela, “European solar demand grows at least by 28% in 2017 with Turkey being leading market”, SolarPower Europe Newsletter, February 2018, http://www.solarpowereurope.org/newsletter-february-2018-draft/top-stories/european-solar-demand-grows-at-least-by-28-in-2017-with-turkey-being-leading-market/. 467
  66. Richard Stubbe, “South Korea makes renewable energy push”, Bloomberg, 7 December 2017, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-12-08/south-korea-makes-renewable-energy-push. Added 1.2 GW for a total of 5.6 GW, from IEA PVPS, Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2018, op. cit. note 3, p. 10.468
  67. Brian Publicover, “Southeast Asia presents patchwork of PV potential”, Unlocking Solar Capital, 6 September 2017, https://asia.unlockingsolarcapital.com/news/2017/9/6/southeast-asia-presents-patchwork-of-pv-potential; Robin Hicks, “Mind the hype: despite huge potential, solar energy in SE Asia is behind a cloud”, Eco-Business, 3 October 2017, http://www.eco-business.com/news/mind-the-hype-despite-huge-potential-solar-energy-in-se-asia-is-behind-a-cloud/.469
  68. Becky Beetz and Ian Clover, “2017: The PV year in review”, PV Magazine, 25 December 2017, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2017/12/25/2017-the-pv-year-in-review/; “Armenia to build its first solar power plant”, PV Magazine, 2 February 2017, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2017/02/02/armenia-to-built-its-first-solar-power-plant/; “First major solar plant built in Armenia”, Asbarez, 29 September 2017, http://asbarez.com/167142/first-major-solar-plant-built-in-armenia/. 470
  69. SolarPower Europe, op. cit. note 13, p. 10.471
  70. Countries include Singapore, Cambodia, Lao PDR, the Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam, from Thomas Reindle, Solar Energy Research Institute of Singapore, cited in Hicks, op. cit. note 67. 472
  71. Figure of 6 GW added from Schmela, cit. note 65; the EU’s cumulative capacity was 107.8 GW, from Becquerel Institute, op. cit. note 19.473
  72. Michael Schmela, SolarPower Europe, Brussels, personal communication with REN21, 1 April 2018.474
  73. Ibid.475
  74. Ibid.; “Sunny renaissance: European PV market growing”, Sonnenseite, 1 March 2018, http://www.sonnenseite.com/en/economy/sunny-renaissance-european-pv-market-growing.html. 476
  75. Projects under development based on the following: Italy from Jess Shankleman, “Italy switches on five new subsidy-free solar power plants”, Renewable Energy World, 5 June 2017, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2017/06/italy-switches-on-five-new-subsidy-free-solar-power-plants.html; Portugal and Spain from Emiliano Bellini, “Portugal: ‘unsubsidized’ approved large-scale PV projects top 756 MW, first solar private PPA signed”, PV Magazine, 12 January 2018, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2018/01/12/portugal-unsubsidized-approved-large-scale-pv-projects-top-756-mw-first-solar-private-ppa-signed/, and from “Egypt secures largest ever Middle East PV financing; US ITC calls for 35% panel tariffs”, New Energy Update, 8 November 2017, http://newenergyupdate.com/pv-insider/egypt-secures-largest-ever-middle-east-pv-financing-us-itc-calls-35-panel-tariffs; United Kingdom from “Anesco toasts subsidy-free solar: 10MW Clayhill plant with 6MW battery storage comes online in UK”, reNEWS, 26 September 2017, http://renews.biz/108593/anesco-toasts-subsidy-free-solar/. See also Alyssa Pek, “Going subsidy-free with PPA’s – a closer look at BayWa r.e.’s Don Rodrigo solar project in Southern Spain”, SolarPower Europe Newsletter, April 2018, http://www.solarpowereurope.org/newsletter/interview-going-subsidy-free-with-ppas-a-closer-look-at-baywa-res-don-rodrigo-solar-project-in-southern-spain/. 477
  76. Schmela, op. cit. note 72; see also Pek, op. cit. note 75.478
  77. Schmela, op. cit. note 65.479
  78. Ibid.480
  79. Germany added 1,678 MW based on a total of 40,716 MW at end of 2016 and a total of 42,394 MW at end-2017, from Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Energie (BMWi), Zeitreihen zur Entwicklung der erneuerbaren Energien in Deutschland unter Verwendung von Daten der Arbeitsgruppe Erneuerbare Energien-Statistik (AGEE-Stat) (Stand: Februar 2018) (Berlin: March 2018), p. 7, https://www.erneuerbare-energien.de/EE/Navigation/DE/Service/Erneuerbare_Energien_in_Zahlen/Zeitreihen/zeitreihen.html. Germany added 1.75 GW for a total of 42 GW, from IEA PVPS, Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2018, op. cit. note 3, p. 10, and from Bundesnetzagentur, provided by Marco Tepper, BSW Solar, personal communication with REN21, 14 February 2018; cumulative capacity of 42,982 MW, from Bundesnetzagentur, “Gesamtzubau der nach dem EEG geförderten PV-Anlagen”, available at EEG-Registerdaten und EEG-Fördersätze, https://www.bundesnetzagentur.de/DE/Sachgebiete/ElektrizitaetundGas/Unternehmen_Institutionen/ErneuerbareEnergien/ZahlenDatenInformationen/EEG_Registerdaten/EEG_Registerdaten_node.html, viewed 24 February 2018; Brian Parkin, “German solar installations again fall short of government target”, Bloomberg, 31 January 2018, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-01-31/german-solar-installations-again-fall-short-of-government-target.481
  80. About half is an estimate from Tepper, op. cit. note 79. Data for 2014 and 2015 include only installations within the government-owned KfW development bank’s subsidy scheme and are sourced from Kai-Philipp Kairies et al. and Speicher Monitoring, Wissenschaftliches Mess- und Evaluierungsprogramm Solarstromspeicher, Jahresberricht 2016 (Aachen: Stromrichter-technik und Elektrische Antriebe, RWTH Aachen University, 2016), prepared for BMWi, pp. 8, 45, http://www.speichermonitoring.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Speichermonitoring_Jahresbericht_2016_Kairies_web.pdf. The share for 2016 was also around 50%, from Sebastian Hermann, German Environment Agency, Dessau, Germany, personal communication with REN21, 1 February 2017. German customers in some market segments are installing storage due to government incentives, but the number of residential installations in Germany remains small, from Masson, op. cit. note 2. See also Jason Deign, “Developers see large opportunity in Germany’s commercial storage market, both with and without solar”, Greentech Media, 3 August 2016, https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/germany-commercial-storage-market-takes-off. Germany installed just over 19,000 battery systems in 2015, from Nigel Morris, “Battery storage: Is Australia on track to be the world’s biggest market?” One Step Off the Grid, 8 February 2017, https://onestepoffthegrid.com.au/battery-storage-australia-track-world-biggest-market/; about 25,355 home storage systems were installed during 2016, from EuPD Research in Martin Ammon, “Status quo and potentials for the residential segment”, presentation at European PV and Energy Storage Market Briefing, Frankfurt, 16 February 2017, slides 20, 21. The market is driven by financial incentives for prosumers, from IEA PVPS, Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2018, op. cit. note 3, p. 7. 482
  81. DWR eco, “German PV repowering trend to continue in 2018”, Sun & Wind Energy, press release (Berlin: 21 December 2017), http://www.sunwindenergy.com/photovoltaics-press-releases/german-pv-repowering-trend-to-continue-2018.483
  82. Added net of 866 MW for total of 12,696 MW, from UK Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy, “Solar photovoltaics deployment in the UK February 2018”, updated 29 March 2018, Table 1, https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/solar-photovoltaics-deployment; and added 0.954 GW for a total of 12.7 GW, from IEA PVPS, Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2018, op. cit. note 3, pp. 3, 5, 15. Note that 593 MW of the 912 MW was installed during March, with most of this capacity (65%) in systems qualifying for a grace period ahead of final closure of the Renewables Obligation (RO) to solar projects 50 kW and larger (on 31 March), from UK Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy, op. cit. this note. Closure of the RO certificates window and FIT cuts from Schmela, op. cit. note 72. 484
  83. France added 887 MW, followed by the Netherlands (853 MW) and Spain (135 MW), from Schmela, op. cit. note 65. France added 875 MW, followed by the Netherlands (853 MW) and Spain (147 MW), from IEA PVPS, Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2018, op. cit. note 3, pp. 15. Spain added 134 MWac, from Becquerel Institute, op. cit. note 11. Spain’s additions were mostly on rooftops from Emiliano Bellini, “Spain has 24 GW of solar projects under review”, PV Magazine, 22 March 2018, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2018/03/22/spain-has-24-gw-of-solar-projects-under-review/. The Netherlands added 853 MW for a total of 2.91 GW; about 45 MW of 2017 additions was in ground-mounted plants and the rest was installed on rooftops (commercial 392 MW; residential 415 MW). Solar PV generated about 2.2% of the country’s power demand, all from “Nationaal Solar Trendrapport 2018”, cited in Emiliano Bellini, “Netherlands installed 853 MW of solar in 2017, monocrystalline modules dominate the market”, PV Magazine, 25 January 2018, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2018/01/25/netherlands-installed-853-mw-of-solar-in-2017-monocrystalline-modules-dominate-the-market/.485
  84. Beetz and Clover, op. cit. note 68; EU targets from Masson, op. cit. note 2.486
  85. Anton Usachev, Russian Solar Industry Association, personal communication with REN21, April 2018.487
  86. Australia added 1.25 GW for a total of 7.2 GW, from IEA PVPS, Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2018, op. cit. note 3, p. 10; added around 1.2 GW for a year-end total exceeding 7 GW based on 5,834,231 kW of reported installed capacity at end-2016 and 7,024,738 kW of capacity at end-2017 (and estimated installed capacity of 7,044,606 kW), from Australian PV Institute (APVI), “Australian PV market since April 2001”, figure on “Australian PV installations since April 2001: total capacity (kW)”, http://pv-map.apvi.org.au/analyses, viewed 12 April 2018. Rising electricity prices and improving economics from Australian Climate Council, State of Solar 2016: Globally and in Australia (Potts Point, New South Wales: 2017), p. II, https://www.climatecouncil.org.au/uploads/4127a8c364c1f9fa8ab096b04cd93f78.pdf; Stephanie Richards, “Businesses rush to install solar systems to combat high power prices”, The Lead (South Australia), 1 September 2017, http://theleadsouthaustralia.com.au/industries/resources-energy/businesses-rush-install-solar-systems-combat-high-power-prices/; Tom Kenning, “Australia hits 1GW in 2017 as small-scale records tumble”, PV-Tech, 11 December 2017, https://www.pv-tech.org/news/australia-hits-1gw-in-2017-as-small-scale-records-tumble; Tom Kenning, “Australia surpasses 1.8 million solar rooftops”, PV-Tech, 20 February 2018, https://www.pv-tech.org/news/australia-surpasses-1.8-million-solar-rooftops. In Australia’s capital cities, the cost of solar power was well below retail power prices as of early 2017, from Australian Climate Council, op. cit. this note.488
  87. Ric Brazzale, “Australia added 1.3GW of solar in 2017, and could treble it in 2018”, RenewEconomy, 25 January 2018, http://reneweconomy.com.au/australia-added-1-3gw-solar-2017-treble-2018/. Market segments are based on system sizes, with residential systems up to 15 kW in size and commercial systems in the 15-100 kW range, from idem. Unprecedented rate of increase in the commercial sector, from Richards, op. cit. note 86. More than 1,057 MW of “small scale” renewable energy was installed in 2017, mostly rooftop solar PV. This equates to 3.5 million solar panels being fixed to Australia’s rooftops (more than 9,500/day). Falling costs led to a preference for larger capacity systems in 2017, all from Australia Clean Energy Regulator, “Household solar capacity through the roof in 2017”, 6 March 2018, http://www.cleanenergyregulator.gov.au/RET/Pages/News%20and%20updates/NewsItem.aspx?ListId=19b4efbb-6f5d-4637-94c4-121c1f96fcfe&ItemId=480. 489
  88. APVI, op. cit. note 86, viewed 25 February 2018. The number of annual installations appears to be declining, but increasing scale per project keeps overall capacity installations high, from idem.490
  89. South Australia based on 211,694 solar PV systems under 10 kW as of early 2018 and 765,786 private dwellings in 2016, and Queensland based on 530,876 such systems as of early 2018 and 1,987,313 private dwellings as of 2016, with solar PV system data from APVI Solar Map, state by state data, http://pv-map.apvi.org.au/historical#4/-26.67/134.12, updated 22 January 2018; dwellings in South Australia from Australian Bureau of Statistics, “2016 Census QuickStats – South Australia”, http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/census_services/getproduct/census/2016/quickstat/4, viewed 30 April 2018; dwellings in Queensland from Australian Bureau of Statistics, “2016 Census QuickStats – Queensland”, http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/census_services/getproduct/census/2016/quickstat/3, viewed 30 April 2018. High shares in other states and territories based on data from APVI Solar Map, figure on “Percentage of dwellings with a PV system by State/Territory”, at “Mapping Australian Photovoltaic Installations”, funded by the Australian Renewable Energy Agency, http://pv-map.apvi.org.au/historical#4/-26.67/134.12, updated 22 January 2018. 491
  90. Australian Solar Quotes, “Rooftop solar makes 48% of South Australia’s electricity generation”, Solar Directory, 2 November 2017, https://www.solardirectory.com.au/news/1528-south-australia-rooftop-solar.com. Rooftop systems met an estimated 47.8% of South Australia’s electricity demand on 17 September, from idem.492
  91. SolarPower Europe, op. cit. note 13, p. 28.493
  92. Data for 2017 from IEA PVPS, Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2018, op. cit. note 3, p. 7; data for 2015 and 2016 from Nigel Morris, “Battery storage: Is Australia on track to be the world’s biggest market?” One Step Off the Grid, 8 February 2017, https://onestepoffthegrid.com.au/battery-storage-australia-track-world-biggest-market/, and from SunWiz, 2017 Battery Market Report, cited in Sophie Vorrath, “Solar + storage installs set to treble on back of ‘exceptional’ battery market growth”, RenewEconomy, 2 February 2017, http://reneweconomy.com.au/solar-storage-installs-set-to-treble-on-back-of-exceptional-battery-market-growth-26042/. 494
  93. See, for example, Giles Parkinson, “Neoen starts on 150MW solar plant in NSW – just a year from initial ‘idea’”, RenewEconomy, 24 January 2018, http://reneweconomy.com.au/neoen-starts-on-150mw-solar-plant-in-nsw-just-a-year-from-initial-idea-52444/. In addition, community solar projects began incorporating battery storage in 2016, from Jason Deign, “Australian government and energy retailers back community solar-plus-storage projects”, Greentech Media, 4 May 2016, https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/arena-funds-battery-plant-in-australias-greenest-ever-neighborhood.495
  94. Vanessa Dezem and Mark Chediak, “World’s energy giants flock to Latin American renewables market”, Renewable Energy World, 15 March 2018, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2018/03/world-s-energy-giants-flock-to-latin-american-renewables-market.htm. Guatemala’s first solar PV plant was brought online in 2017, from Debbie Annley, Latinoamerica Renovable, San Salvador, personal communication with REN21, April 2018. 496
  95. Jason Deign, “Mexico’s record solar prices fall below the average cost of energy from gas and coal”, Greentech Media, 8 January 2018, https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/mexico-record-solar-prices-are-below-the-cost-of-gas-and-coal.497
  96. Adam Critchley, Solarplaza, “Does merchant solar have a future in LatAm?” Solar Asset Management LATAM, 18 August 2017, https://www.samlatam.com/news-content/2017/8/18/does-merchant-solar-have-a-future-in-latam/; Jason Deign, “Mexico emerges as a leader for distributed solar in Latin America”, Greentech Media, 13 December 2017, https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/sun-shines-on-distributed-generation-in-mexico.498
  97. Brazil ended 2016 with 238 MW, added 910 MW for a total of 1.1 GW, from Becquerel Institute, op. cit. note 11, 29 March and April 2018, and from IEA PVPS, Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2018, op. cit. note 3, pp. 3, 6; 1,099.6 GW cumulative from Emiliano Bellini, “Brazil hits 1 GW solar milestone”, PV Magazine, 9 January 2018, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2018/01/09/brazil-hits-1-gw-renewables-milestone/. The vast majority of added capacity is in large-scale projects (more than 935 MW is in projects larger than 5 MW) resulting from government tenders in 2014 and 2015, from idem. 499
  98. IEA PVPS, Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2018, op. cit. note 3, pp. 3-4, 10, 15; data and sources for other countries provided throughout this section. Figure 27 based on idem.500
  99. Solarplaza, “Has Chile fixed its transmission issues?” Solar Asset Management LATAM, 5 September 2017, https://www.samlatam.com/news-content/2017/9/5/has-chile-fixed-its-transmission-issues. 501
  100. Chile added 668 MW for a total of 1.7 GW, from IEA PVPS, Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2018, op. cit. note 3, p. 15.502
  101. Emiliano Bellini, “Colombia’s first solar park comes online”, PV Magazine, 4 September 2017, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2017/09/04/colombias-first-solar-park-comes-online/. 503
  102. Middle East Solar Industry Association (MESIA), Solar Outlook Report 2018 (Dubai: February 2018), p. 4, http://www.mesia.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/MESIA-OUTLOOK-2018-Report-7March2018.pdf; “Middle East leaders seek solar, wind innovators to support growth”, New Energy Update, 26 April 2017, http://analysis.newenergyupdate.com/content/middle-east-leaders-seek-solar-wind-innovators-support-growth.504
  103. MESIA, op. cit. note 102, pp. 4-5, 8; “Middle East leaders seek solar…”, op. cit. note 102; Schmela, op. cit. note 72. 505
  104. MESIA, op. cit. note 102, p. 4.506
  105. Conor Ryan, “Jordan connects 12.9MW PV project in refugee camp”, PV-Tech, 14 November 2017, https://www.pv-tech.org/news/jordan-connects-worlds-largest-pv-project-in-refugee-camp; “Jordan switches on world’s largest solar plant in refugee camp”, Reuters, 13 November 2017, https://uk.reuters.com/article/jordan-solar-zaatari/jordan-switches-on-worlds-largest-solar-plant-in-refugee-camp-idUKL8N1NJ4UL. Large-scale projects under development from, for example, Tom Kenning, “IFC finances Masdar’s 248MW solar project in Jordan”, PV-Tech, 17 January 2018, https://www.pv-tech.org/news/ifc-finances-masdars-248mw-solar-project-in-jordan; Conor Ryan, “ACWA Power closes financing for 61.3MW PV project in Jordan”, PV-Tech, 22 December 2017, https://www.pv-tech.org/news/acwa-power-closes-financing-for-61.3mw-pv-project-in-jordan; Conor Ryan, “ABB provides inverters for 102MW PV portfolio in Jordan”, PV-Tech, 28 July 2017, https://www.pv-tech.org/news/abb-provides-inverters-for-102mw-pv-portfolio-in-jordan; Tom Kenning, “FRV closes on financing for 133MW of solar projects in Jordan”, PV-Tech, 28 March 2017, https://www.pv-tech.org/news/frv-closes-on-financing-for-133mw-of-solar-projects-in-jordan; Conor Ryan, “ET Energy begins construction on 60.9MW PV project in Jordan”, PV-Tech, 16 March 2017, https://www.pv-tech.org/news/et-energy-begins-construction-on-60.9mw-pv-project-in-jordan. 507
  106. Emiliano Bellini, “Saudi Arabia’s 300 MW solar tender may conclude with lowest bid ever”, PV Magazine, 4 October 2017, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2017/10/04/saudi-arabias-300-mw-solar-tender-may-conclude-with-lowest-bid-ever/; Laura El-Katiri, “The Gulf’s sunshine states”, Petroleum Economist, November 2017, pp. 22-27; Emiliano Bellini, “Saudi Arabia to tender seven PV projects totaling 3.3 GW in 2018, PV Magazine, 16 January 2018, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2018/01/16/saudi-arabia-to-tender-seven-pv-projects-totaling-3-3-gw-in-2018/; “Saudi Arabia’s power sector reforms spur faster solar growth outlooks”, New Energy Update, 10 May 2017, http://analysis.newenergyupdate.com/pv-insider/saudi-arabias-power-sector-reforms-spur-faster-solar-growth-outlooks. 508
  107. See, for example, Chijioke Mama, “On-grid solar in Nigeria: two years after the PPAs”, Solar Future, 22 February 2018, https://nigeria.thesolarfuture.com/news-source/2018/2/22/on-grid-solar-in-nigeria-two-years-after-the-ppas; Emiliano Bellini, “Senegal’s first solar park comes online”, PV Magazine, 30 June 2017, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2017/06/30/senegals-first-solar-park-comes-online/; Maina Waruru, “Kenya taps solar to power digital learning”, Renewable Energy World, 18 July 2016, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2016/07/kenya-taps-solar-to-power-digital-learning.html; Kizito Makoye, “Solar panels power business surge – not just lights – in Tanzania”, Reuters, 19 April 2016, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-tanzania-solar-energy-idUSKCN0XG1VX; Chris Mfula, “Zambia to diversify generation mix as drought hits hydropower”, Lusaka Times, 10 May 2016, https://www.lusakatimes.com/2016/05/10/zambia-diversify-generation-mix-drought-hits-hydropower/. Zambia has been expanding its non-hydropower renewable capacity to reduce reliance on hydropower, which has experienced a decline in output due to drought, from idem.509
  108. South Africa and additions in Algeria from IEA PVPS, Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2018, op. cit. note 3, p. 4; Algerian total approaching 0.4 GW, based on the following: Unlocking Solar Capital, “Top 50 operational solar PV plants in Africa”, http://africa.unlockingsolarcapital.com/top-50-pv-plants, viewed 21 April 2018, plus additions of 50 MW, from IEA PVPS, op. cit. this note, and on total of 343 MW in operation at year’s end (with 270 MW connected to the grid), from Samy Bouchaib, Centre de Developpement des Energies Renouvelables, Algeria, personal communication with REN21, 12 April 2018. South Africa and Algeria were the top two countries in Africa, with 1.7 GW and 0.4 GW respectively at end-2017, from IRENA, Renewable Capacity Statistics 2018 (Abu Dhabi: April 2018), p. 24, http://irena.org/publications/2018/Mar/Renewable-Capacity-Statistics-2018. 510
  109. See, for example, Tom Kenning, “West Africa’s largest solar plant nears grid connection in Burkina Faso”, PV-Tech, 28 November 2017, https://www.pv-tech.org/news/west-africas-largest-solar-plant-nears-grid-connection-in-burkino-faso; “Burkina Faso launches Sahel region’s largest solar power plant”, News 24, 28 November 2017, https://www.news24.com/Africa/News/burkina-faso-launches-sahel-regions-largest-solar-power-plant-20171128; Bellini, op. cit. note 107; “Building Energy celebrates the beginning of production at its photovoltaic power plant in Uganda”, Solar Server, 17 October 2017, https://www.solarserver.com/solar-magazine/solar-news/current/2017/kw42/building-energy-celebrates-the-beginning-of-production-at-its-photovoltaic-power-plant-in-uganda.html. 511
  110. Online in 2017 from Ibid., all sources; planned or under construction from Jennifer Runyon, “Egypt readies for 2 GW of solar PV capacity”, Renewable Energy World, 17 January 2018, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2018/01/egypt-readies-for-2-gw-of-solar-pv-capacity.html; Conor Ryan, “Alten Energías Renovables wins tender for 45MW PV project in Namibia”, PV-Tech, 24 May 2017, https://www.pv-tech.org/news/alten-energias-renovables-wins-tender-for-45mw-pv-project-in-namibia; Emiliano Bellini, “Nigerian government inks deals for 120 MW of solar”, PV Magazine, 18 April 2017, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2017/04/18/nigerian-government-inks-deals-for-120-mw-of-solar/; Ian Clover, “World Bank mandates 500 MW of new solar capacity for Zambia”, PV Magazine, 22 February 2017, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2017/02/22/world-bank-mandates-500-mw-of-new-solar-capacity-for-zambia/; Tom Kenning, “Sterling & Wilson starts work on 54MW solar project in Zambia”, PV-Tech, 25 August 2017. See also MESIA, op. cit. note 102. However, many countries have announced projects only to see them delayed (including 5 GW of projects that have been announced in Egypt alone) or stuck in the evaluation phase, from IEA PVPS, Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2018, op. cit. note 3, p. 4. 512
  111. Ivan Nygaard et al., The Emerging Market for Pico-Scale Solar PV Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa: From Donor-Supported Niches Toward Market-Based Rural Electrification (Copenhagen: UNEP DTU Partnership, 2016), pp. 7, 14, 16-17, http://www.sun-connect-news.org/fileadmin/DATEIEN/Dateien/New/Market-Pico-Solar_WEB.pdf; Michael Taylor, “Solar PV in Africa: falling costs driving rapid growth”, ESI Africa, 22 December 2017, https://www.esi-africa.com/solar-pv-africa-falling-costs-driving-rapid-growth/. 513
  112. Based on data from IRENA, Measurement and Estimation of Off-grid Solar, Hydro and Biogas Energy (Abu Dhabi: forthcoming June 2018).514
  113. See, for example, Emiliano Bellini, “IFC finances Mozambique’s first solar plant with $55 million”, PV Magazine, 8 June 2017, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2017/06/08/ifc-finances-mozambiques-first-solar-plant-with-55-million/; Antony Kiganda, “World Bank revitalizes solar power in Zambia with 500 MW project”, Construction Review Online, 23 February 2017, https://constructionreviewonline.com/2017/02/world-bank-revitalizes-solar-power-in-zambia-with-500-mw-project/; Ilias Tsagas, “Scaling Solar update: Senegal, Madagascar, Ethiopia and Zambia tenders”, PV Magazine, 25 January 2017, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2017/01/25/scaling-solar-update-senegal-madagascar-ethiopia-and-zambia-tenders/; Scaling Solar, World Bank Group, “Unlocking private investment in emerging market solar power”, https://www.scalingsolar.org/, viewed February 2018; Amanda Lennon, “World Bank provides US$150 million credit for Kenya off-grid solar”, PV-Tech, 1 August 2017, https://www.pv-tech.org/news/150-million-world-bank-investment-into-off-grid-solar-energy-in-kenya; Frederic Brown, “World Bank’s Lighting Africa initiative set to deliver more solar to Tanzania”, PV Magazine, 12 October 2017, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2017/10/12/world-banks-lighting-africa-initiative-set-to-deliver-more-solar-to-tanzania/; Amanda Lennon, “PEG raises US$13.5 million for off-grid home solar in West Africa”, PV-Tech, 26 October 2017, https://www.pv-tech.org/news/peg-fundraise-usd13.5-million-for-off-grid-home-solar-in-west-africa. 515
  114. Expanding off-grid based on data for capacity increases from 2015 to 2016, from IRENA, op. cit. note 112; vast majority from IEA PVPS, Trends in Photovoltaic Applications 2017, op. cit. note 3, pp. 15, 72; SolarPower Europe, op. cit. note 13, p. 20.516
  115. IEA PVPS, Trends in Photovoltaic Applications 2017, op. cit. note 3, pp. 11, 15; Runyon, op. cit. note 15, pp. 14-17. Residential markets are located primarily in Australia, several countries in the EU, Japan and the United States. Significant effort and time are required to educate consumers and establish appropriate financing mechanisms and technical standards for developing strong distributed rooftop markets, from SolarPower Europe, op. cit. note 13, p. 20; IEA PVPS, Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2018, op. cit. note 3, pp. 5, 11.517
  116. IEA PVPS, Trends in Photovoltaic Applications, 2016: Survey Report of Selected IEA Countries Between 1992 and 2015 (Paris: 2016), pp. 11-12, 67, http://www.iea-pvps.org/fileadmin/dam/public/report/national/Trends_2016_-_mr.pdf; IEA PVPS, Trends in Photovoltaic Applications 2017, op. cit. note 3, p. 15; Runyon, op. cit. note 15, pp. 14-17; share of 77% from Becquerel Institute, op. cit. note 11; centralised large-scale projects are defined by IEA PVPS as ground-mounted projects of 1 MW and larger, from Becquerel Institute, op. cit. note 11.518
  117. Based on data from Denis Lenardič, pvresources, Jesenice, Slovenia, personal communication with REN21, March-April 2018; Dubai commissioned a 200 MW plant, from MESIA, op. cit. note 102, p. 24.519
  118. Lenardič, op. cit. note 117.520
  119. Nearly every region from, for example, Feifei Shen, “China Three Gorges starts world’s biggest floating solar project”, Renewable Energy World, 11 December 2017, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2017/12/china-three-gorges-starts-world-s-biggest-floating-solar-project.html; Tom Kenning, “Giant 480MW Japan solar plant plans refreshed with five new participants”, PV-Tech, 24 January 2018, https://www.pv-tech.org/news/giant-japan-solar-plant-plans-refreshed-with-five-new-participants; Emiliano Bellini, “Alten and Cubico begin work on 350 MW solar park in central Mexico”, PV Magazine, 12 October 2017, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2017/10/12/alten-and-cubico-begin-work-on-350-mw-solar-park-in-central-mexico/; Tom Kenning, “Enel starts building 275MW Australia solar farm, sells 80% stake in 1.7GW of Mexican renewables”, PV-Tech, 10 October 2017, https://www.pv-tech.org/news/enel-starts-building-275mw-australia-solar-farm-sells-80-stake-in-1.7gw-of; Giles Parkinson, “Neoen starts on 150MW solar plant in NSW – just a year from initial ‘idea’”, RenewEconomy, 24 January 2018, http://reneweconomy.com.au/neoen-starts-on-150mw-solar-plant-in-nsw-just-a-year-from-initial-idea-52444/; Marco Dorothal, “Top 50 PV plants in emerging markets”, Making Solar Bankable, 25 October 2017, https://www.makingsolarbankable.com/news-updates-source/top50emergingmarkets. Portugal from “WElink starts construction of Europe’s largest unsubsidized PV plant”, in “Egypt secures largest ever Middle East PV financing; US ITC calls for 35% panel tariffs”, New Energy Update, 8 November 2017, http://newenergyupdate.com/pv-insider/egypt-secures-largest-ever-middle-east-pv-financing-us-itc-calls-35-panel-tariffs; Japan from Tom Kenning, “Softbank and Mitsubishi to build 102MW solar-plus-storage plant in Japan”, PV-Tech, 2 November 2017, https://www.pv-tech.org/news/softbank-and-mitsubishi-to-build-102mw-solar-plus-storage-plant-in-japan; Argentina from “Argentina comienza la construcción de la mayor planta solar de la región”, Sputnik Mundo, 6 October 2017, https://mundo.sputniknews.com/americalatina/201710061072961136-america-latina-jujuy-energia-renovable/. 521
  120. Wiki-Solar, “Utility-scale solar passes 100 GW milestone”, 11 May 2017, http://wiki-solar.org/library/public/170511_Utility-scale%20solar_passes_100GW_milestone.pdf; approaching 140 GW by year’s end from Wiki-Solar, “Yet another record year as utility-scale solar goes mainstream”, 5 March 2018, http://wiki-solar.org/library/public/180305_Utility-solar_2017_figures.pdf. The vast majority of capacity for such plants is located in 13 countries, with China, the United States and India in the lead, from Wiki-Solar, “Utility-scale solar…”, op. cit. this note. New installations in 2017 exceeded 40 GW, for a year-end total of 137 GW (based on 143 GW less 6 GW of concentrating solar thermal power capacity), from Wiki-Solar, “Yet another record year…”, op. cit. this note.522
  121. Mina Mesbahi and Saori Minamino, “Top 70 floating solar PV plants”, Solar Asset Management, 4 January 2018, https://solarassetmanagement.asia/news/top-70-floating-solar-pv-plants. Locations from, for example, Tom Kenning, “Innova Capital, Ciel & Terre partner to develop floating solar projects in Colombia”, pvtech, 26 September 2017, https://www.pv-tech.org/news/ciel-terre-and-innova-capital-to-develop-floating-solar-in-colombia; Tass, “Hengtong Optic-Electric pioneers a new type of solar power plant in Shandong, China”, press release (Suzhou, China: 30 January 2018), http://tass.com/press-releases/987488. For more on floating solar PV projects planned or under construction, potential, etc., see Brian Publicover, “The weekend read: floating on optimism”, PV Magazine, 24 March 2018, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2018/03/24/the-weekend-read-floating-on-optimism/. 523
  122. See, for example: Brandi Goode, “Japan sees potential in solar power”, Japan Today, 18 April 2017, https://japantoday.com/category/features/lifestyle/Japan-sees-potential-in-solar-power; CTBR Staff, op. cit. note 121; Tass, op. cit. note 121; Benjamin Mow, “STAT FAQs Part 1: floating solar”, US National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), 4 April 2018, https://www.nrel.gov/technical-assistance/blog/posts/stat-faqs-part1-floating-solar.html; Mesbahi and Minamino, op. cit. note 121.524
  123. Mesbahi and Minamino, op. cit. note 121. Also see Goode, op. cit. note 122.525
  124. China from, for example, “World’s largest floating PV power plant connected to the grid in China”, Solar Energy Business Review, 19 May 2017, https://www.pv-tech.org/news/worlds-largest-floating-solar-plant-comes-partially-online-in-china; Shen, op. cit. note 119; Joe McCarthy, “The world’s biggest floating solar farm is now live. And it’s on top of a former coal mine”, Global Citizen, 18 August 2017, https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/china-largest-floating-solar-farm-coal-mine/; Tass, op. cit. note 121. China’s capacity from Frank Haugwitz, AECEA, personal communication with REN21, 16 April 2018. India from Ian Clover, “India’s SECI to roll out 10 GW floating solar tender”, PV Magazine, 19 December 2017, from https://www.pv-magazine.com/2017/12/19/indias-seci-to-roll-out-10-gw-floating-solar-tender/, and from Tom Kenning, “India’s SECI invites expression of interest for 10GW of floating solar”, PV-Tech, 19 December 2017, https://www.pv-tech.org/news/indias-seci-invites-expression-of-interest-for-10gw-of-floating-solar. The Republic of Korea from Mesbahi and Minamino, op. cit. note 121, and from Mark Osborne, “Hanwha Q CELLS developing 80MW rotating floating solar project in Korea”, PV-Tech, 21 July 2017, https://www.pv-tech.org/news/hanwha-q-cells-developing-80mw-rotating-floating-solar-project-in-korea. Brazil from Tom Kenning, “Brazil’s first floating solar plant completed by Ciel & Terre”, PV-Tech, 6 September 2017, https://www.pv-tech.org/news/brazils-first-floating-solar-plant-completed-by-ciel-terre. 526
  125. See, for example: Sendea, “New solar PV in Kenya and India: a comparison”, Sun Connect News, 6 December 2017, http://www.sun-connect-news.org/market/details/new-solar-tv-in-kenya-and-india-a-comparison/; Charlie Gay, “Solar power does what? 4 unusual uses of photovoltaic technology”, US Department of Energy (DOE), Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy, “Solar power does what? 4 unusual uses of photovoltaic technology”, 9 August 2017, https://energy.gov/eere/articles/solar-power-does-what-4-unusual-uses-photovoltaic-technology; Charles Q. Choi, “Stretchy, waterproof solar cells to power wearables”, Spectrum IEEE, 18 September 2017, https://spectrum.ieee.org/energywise/energy/renewables/stretchy-waterproof-solar-cells-to-power-wearables; Chisaki Watanabe et al., “Panasonic joins push to put photovoltaics on more car roofs”, Bloomberg, 22 June 2017, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-06-22/panasonic-joins-push-to-put-photovoltaics-on-roof-of-more-cars; Brian Publicover, “Toyota debuts new Prius with rooftop PV option in Japan”, PV Magazine, 21 February 2017, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2017/02/21/toyota-debuts-new-prius-with-rooftop-pv-option-in-japan/; “New solar-powered highway opens in China”, Euro News, 28 December 2017, http://www.euronews.com/2017/12/28/new-solar-powered-highway-opens-in-china; Peter Koekoek, “This Danish school has installed the world’s largest solar façade”, Daily Planet, 15 February 2017, https://dailyplanet.climate-kic.org/this-danish-school-has-installed-the-worlds-largest-solar-facade/.527
  126. C.F. Møller Architects, “Copenhagen International School”, Architect Magazine, 29 August 2017, http://www.architectmagazine.com/project-gallery/copenhagen-international-school_o; Copenhagen International School, “Nordhavn Campus Factsheet”, https://www.cis.dk/welcome/the-new-campus/nordhavn-campus-factsheet, viewed 8 March 2018; Koekoek, op. cit. note 125. 528
  127. Honduras generated 923.7 GWh of electricity with solar PV in 2017, and total generation in the system (including imports) was 8,957.8 GWh, making the solar PV share 10.3%, up from 9.9% in 2016, from Empresa Nacional de Energía Eléctrica, Boletín de Datos Estadistíco Diciembre 2017 (Tegucigalpa: undated), p. 10, https://gastosmios.000webhostapp.com/pdf/Boletin-Estadistico-Diciembre-2017.pdf; Italy from Terna, Rapporto mensile sul Sistema Elettrico December 2017 (Rome: 2017), p. 11, http://www.infobuildenergia.it/Allegati/12748.pdf; Greece from the following sources: for interconnected systems, data are from Greek Operator of Electricity Market, “DAS Monthly Reports”, http://www.lagie.gr/en/market/market-analysis/das-monthly-reports/; for non-interconnected islands, data are from Hellenic Electricity Distribution Network Operator S.A., https://www.deddie.gr/en/themata-tou-diaxeiristi-mi-diasundedemenwn-nisiwn/stoixeia-ekkathariseon-kai-minaion-deltion-mdn/miniaia-deltia-ape-kai-thermikis-paragwgis-sta-miMar22201831802323PM/minaia-pliroforiaka-deltia-paragogis-2017, viewed April 2018, all in Greek and provided by Ioannis Tsipouridis, R.E.D. Pro Consultants, Athens, personal communication with REN21, 14 April 2018; Germany’s share of net generation was 7%, based on solar PV net generation of 38.39 TWh, and total net generation of 546.91 TWh, from Fraunhofer ISE, "Energy charts – annual electricity generation in Germany in 2017", https://www.energy-charts.de/energy.htm?source=all-sources&period=annual&year=2017, updated 12 March 2018; Japan figure is a preliminary estimate based on data from Japanese Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, from ISEP provided by Matsubara, op. cit. note 58, 2 April 2018.529
  128. Figure of 22 countries from IEA PVPS, Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2018, op. cit. note 3, p. 13. The countries (in order of share of demand that theoretically could be met by solar PV) were Honduras, Germany, Greece, Italy, Japan, Chile, Belgium, Australia, the United Kingdom, Bulgaria, Israel, the Czech Republic, India, Switzerland, China, Romania, Denmark, Spain, the Netherlands, Thailand, Turkey and the Slovak Republic. Further, 15 countries could produce an estimated 3% or more, and 6 countries an estimated 5% or more. Estimates are for solar PV’s theoretical contribution to electricity demand based on the cumulative solar PV capacity installed in each country at the end of 2017, from idem. Worldwide production potential of 494 TWh, from Masson, op. cit. note 2; and potential close to 500 TWh, from IEA PVPS, Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2018, op. cit. note 3, pp. 12-15. Estimates for electricity generation from Masson and IEA PVPS are theoretical calculations based on average yield and installed solar PV capacity as of 31 December 2017. Solar PV capacity in operation at the end of 2017 was enough to produce an estimated 2.14% of global electricity generation assuming close to optimum siting, orientation and average weather conditions. Electricity consumption data used for calculation were provided by official sources; when 2017 data were not yet available, data for 2016 or earlier were used.530
  129. See information and related sources throughout this section for more information and references. Consolidation, thinning margins and other impacts on producers and developers also from, for example, Tan, op. cit. note 20; Anna Flavia Rochas, “PV developers invest in pre-build module checks to protect margins”, New Energy Update, 7 June 2017, http://analysis.newenergyupdate.com/pv-insider/pv-developers-invest-pre-build-module-checks-protect-margins; Masson, op. cit. note 2.531
  130. GTM Research, op. cit. note 20.532
  131. Gaëtan Masson, Becquerel Institute and IEA PVPS, personal communication with REN21, 24 April 2018.533
  132. IRENA, Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2017 (Abu Dhabi: 2018), pp. 16, 23, http://irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2018/Jan/IRENA_2017_Power_Costs_2018.pdf.534
  133. Ibid.535
  134. US DOE, “Energy Department announces achievement of SunShot goal, new focus for Solar Energy Office”, press release (Washington, DC: 12 September 2017), https://www.energy.gov/articles/energy-department-announces-achievement-sunshot-goal-new-focus-solar-energy-office; Ran Fu et al., U.S. Solar Photovoltaic System Cost Benchmark: Q1 2017 (Golden, CO: NREL, September 2017), pp. viii, 48-49, https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy17osti/68925.pdf; Patrick Brown et al., “The future of solar now depends on more than just technology”, R&D Magazine, 30 November 2017, https://www.rdmag.com/article/2017/11/future-solar-now-depends-more-just-technology. A study completed in December 2017 found that the average price climbed back above USD 1 per watt and USD 0.06 per kWh because of uncertainty surrounding the solar trade case, from Julia Pyper, “The trade case just put $1 per watt solar pricing back out of reach”, Greentech Media, 5 December 2017, https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/solar-trade-case-1-per-watt-section-201. 536
  135. FS-UNEP Centre and BNEF, op. cit. note 1, p. 11; Tom Kenning, “Saudi solar bids debunked: what we know so far”, PV-Tech, 4 October 2017, https://www.pv-tech.org/editors-blog/47545.537
  136. Argentina from Emiliano Bellini, “Lowest solar bid in Argentina’s latest RE auction reaches $40.4/MWh”, PV Magazine, 24 November 2017, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2017/11/24/lowest-solar-bid-in-argentinas-latest-re-auction-reaches-40-4mwh/; Chile and Mexico from Masson, op. cit. note 2; India from Anindya Upadhyay and Rajesh Kumar Singh, “Cheaper solar in India prompts rethink for coal projects”, Bloomberg, 1 June 2017, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-06-01/cheaper-solar-in-india-prompts-rethink-for-more-coal-projects, from Tom Kenning, “Yet another India solar tariff record of 2.44 rupees in Rajasthan”, PV-Tech, 12 May 2017, https://www.pv-tech.org/news/yet-another-india-solar-tariff-record-of-2.44-rupees-in-rajasthan, and from Saran, op. cit. note 2; Saudi Arabia from LeAnne Graves, “World’s cheapest prices submitted for Saudi Arabia’s first solar project”, The National, 4 October 2017, https://www.thenational.ae/business/energy/world-s-cheapest-prices-submitted-for-saudi-arabia-s-first-solar-project-1.663842; Bellini, op. cit. note 106. Saudi power developer ACWA Power submitted the winning bid of SAR 0.08782 (USD 0.0234) per kWh and was awarded a 25-year PPA in early 2018, from Plamena Tisheva, “ACWA Power wins 300-MW Saudi solar tender”, Renewables Now, 6 February 2018, https://renewablesnow.com/news/acwa-power-wins-300-mw-saudi-solar-tender-600877/. Abu Dhabi and Dubai from IRENA, op. cit. note 132. The lowest bid as of end-2017 was for the full 300 MW in Saudi Arabia by Abu Dhabi Future Energy Company (Masdar) and EDF Energies Nouvelles, at USD 17.85 per kWh, from Anu Bhambhani, “World’s lowest solar price offer in technical bid of 300 MW Sakaka PV project in Saudi Arabia offered at 1.79 US cents/kWh”, Taiyang News, 5 October 2017, http://taiyangnews.info/markets/record-low-solar-bid/. These bid price levels approached, or in many cases beat, the price of wholesale electricity in several countries, from IEA PVPS, Trends in Photovoltaic Applications 2017, op. cit. note 3, p. 67. Spain also saw PPAs below EUR 0.04 (USD 0.048) per kWh, from idem.538
  137. James Watson, “Solar’s future is brighter than ever”, SolarPower Europe Newsletter, December 2017, http://solarpowereurope.org/newsletter-december-2017/editorial-2017-recap-of-solars-successesopportunities-for-2018/. Germany’s final tender for 2017 saw bids between EUR 42.9 and EUR 50.6 per MWh, with an average of EUR 49 per MWh. The country’s first tender of 2018 saw bids cross the EUR 40 per MWh for the first time, with an average value of EUR 43.4 per MWh and a low of EUR 38.6 per MWh, all from Sandra Enkhardt, “Germany’s auction for large-scale solar: bids below €0.04/kWh for the first time”, PV Magazine, 20 February 2018, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2018/02/20/germanys-auction-for-large-scale-solar-bids-below-e0-04-kwh-for-the-first-time/. 539
  138. Robert Walton, “Austin Energy solar PPA could be lowest-priced in US, analysts say”, Utility Dive, 20 December 2017, https://www.utilitydive.com/news/austin-energy-solar-ppa-could-be-lowest-priced-in-us-analysts-say/513453/; Emma Foehringer Merchant, “Austin Energy signs historic-low solar PPA amid 201 trade case uncertainty”, GTM Research, 18 December 2017, https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/amidst-201-trade-case-uncertainty-austin-energy-signs-historic-low-solar-pp. Details were not provided by the Texas-based utility, but back of the envelope calculations by GTM Research analyst Colin Smith arrived at estimates between USD 23.5 and USD 27.25 per MWh, and possibly at low as USD 21 per MWh, from Merchant, op. cit. this note. 540
  139. Jess Shankleman and Chris Martin, “Solar could beat coal to become the cheapest power on Earth”, Bloomberg, 3 January 2017, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-01-03/for-cheapest-power-on-earth-look-skyward-as-coal-falls-to-solar; Arnulf Jäger-Waldau, EC, Brussels, personal communication with REN21, April 2017; Masson, op. cit. note 2.541
  140. Ibid., all sources.542
  141. Masson, op. cit. note 2.543
  142. See, for example: Paula Mints, “Notes from the solar underground: highly competitive industries and their highly expected mergers”, Renewable Energy World, 20 October 2017, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2017/10/notes-from-the-solar-underground-highly-competitive-industries-and-their-highly-expected-mergers.html; “NextEnergy scores UK PV double”, Renews Biz, 29 August 2017, http://renews.biz/108276/nextenergy-scores-uk-pv-double/; “Marathon Capital advises Heelstone Energy on the sale of a 194 MW (DC) solar portfolio to Sammons Renewable Energy”, PR Newswire, 17 August 2017, http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/marathon-capital-advises-heelstone-energy-on-the-sale-of-a-194-mwdc-solar-portfolio-to-sammons-renewable-energy-300505797.html; “Capital Dynamics acquires 280MW California solar plant from First Solar”, Clean Technology Business Review, 23 August 2017, http://solar.cleantechnology-business-review.com/news/capital-dynamics-acquires-280mw-californian-solar-plant-from-first-solar-230817-5906882; Tom Kenning, “Constant Energy acquires Thailand solar business from Sonnedix”, PV-Tech, 21 September 2017, https://www.pv-tech.org/news/constant-energy-acquires-thailand-solar-business-from-sonnedix; Tom Kenning, “Solarcentury bolsters Latin America business with 400MW pipeline purchase”, PV-Tech, 11 April 2017, https://www.pv-tech.org/news/solarcentury-bolsters-latin-america-business-with-400mw-pipeline-purchase; Emiliano Bellini, “Engie acquires Sungevity’s European unit”, PV Magazine, 29 May 2017, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2017/05/29/engie-acquires-sungevitys-european-unit/; “Canadians soak in Brazil sun: 80.6 MW Guimarania project scheduled to come online in late 2018”, Renews Biz, 6 September 2017, http://renews.biz/108383/canadians-soak-in-brazil-sun/. 544
  143. The merger created United Renewable Energy, from Mints, op. cit. note 142; Jackson Chang et al., “Largest-ever solar energy merger in Taiwan announced”, Focus Taiwan, 16 October 2017, http://focustaiwan.tw/news/aeco/201710160027.aspx.545
  144. “Solar farm acquisitions soar”, in “Solar costs forecast to drop 40% by 2020; annual PV funding hikes 41% to $12.8bn”, New Energy Update, 17 January 2018, http://analysis.newenergyupdate.com/pv-insider/solar-costs-forecast-drop-40-2020-annual-pv-funding-hikes-41-128bn; “Global corporate funding into the solar sector came to $12.8 billion in 2017”, Sonnenseite, 10 January 2018, http://www.sonnenseite.com/en/energy/global-corporate-funding-into-the-solar-sector-came-to-12.8-billion-in-2017.html.546
  145. Paula Mints, cited in Jennifer Runyon, “Solar module maker SolarWorld files for insolvency”, Renewable Energy World, 10 May 2017, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2017/05/solar-module-maker-solarworld-files-for-insolvency.html.547
  146. Christian Roselund, “Suniva files for chapter 11 bankruptcy”, PV Magazine, 18 April 2017, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2017/04/18/suniva-files-for-bankruptcy/; Jonathan Gifford, “Breaking: SolarWorld files for insolvency”, PV Magazine, 10 May 2017, https://pv-magazine-usa.com/2017/05/10/breaking-solarworld-files-for-insolvency/; Beetz and Clover, op. cit. note 68. SolarWorld filed for insolvency shortly after closing the largest crystalline silicon PV manufacturing facility in western hemisphere, in Portland, Oregon, from Gifford, op. cit. this note. 548
  147. Beetz and Clover, op. cit. note 68.549
  148. Tiffany Kary et al., “SunEdison sets bankruptcy exit with nothing for shareholders”, Bloomberg, 25 July 2017, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-07-25/sunedison-sets-bankruptcy-exit-with-nothing-for-shareholders.550
  149. Allison Mond, “SolarCity is no longer the top residential solar lease provider in the US”, Greentech Media, 15 November 2017, https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/solarcity-is-no-longer-the-top-residential-solar-lease-provider-in-the-us; Julian Spector, “Back from the dead: Sungevity reappears after Solar Spectrum and Horizon merge”, Greentech Media, 23 August 2017, https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/sungevity-reappears-after-solar-spectrum-horizon-merge. Leading installers began shifting away from leasing and aggressive marketing campaigns in response to market saturation in the residential sector, and a shift from leasing to customer ownership and solar loans from, for example, Julian Spector, “It’s official: solar securitizations pass $1 billion in 2017”, Greentech Media, 30 October 2017, https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/solar-securitizations-expected-to-pass-1-billion-in-2017; Joseph Bebon, “Mosaic closes $307.5 million solar load securitization”, Solar Industry Magazine, 30 October 2017, https://solarindustrymag.com/mosaic-closes-307-5-million-solar-loan-securitization; Christian Roselund, “Third-party solar proves less popular in installer survey”, PV Magazine, 10 January 2017, https://pv-magazine-usa.com/2017/01/10/third-party-solar-proves-less-popular-in-installer-survey/.551
  150. Teikoku Databank, cited in Andy Colthorpe, “Up to 100 Japanese solar PV firms could go bust this year, report finds”, PV-Tech, 18 July 2017, https://www.pv-tech.org/news/up-to-100-japanese-solar-pv-firms-could-go-bust-this-year-report-finds. Another research firm, Tokyo Shoko Research, estimated that 31 firms went bankrupt in the first half of 2016, from idem.552
  151. Masson, op. cit. note 2; Mints, op. cit. note 145; Jennifer Runyon and Paula Mints, “3@3 on solar PV: unintended consequences that could destroy solar (and already are)”, Renewable Energy World, 23 February 2018, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2018/02/3-3-on-solar-pv-unintended-consequences-that-could-destroy-solar-and-already-are.html; DNV GL, “DNV GL releases 2017 PV module reliability scorecard”, press release (Munich: 1 June 2017), https://www.dnvgl.com/news/dnv-gl-releases-2017-pv-module-reliability-scorecard-93447. For more on quality issues, see also Ian Clover, “REI show: quality a hot topic for India solar industry, tariffs against China unlikely say some”, PV Magazine, 22 September 2017, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2017/09/22/rei-show-quality-a-hot-topic-for-india-solar-industry-tariffs-against-china-unlikely/; IRENA, Boosting Solar PV Markets: The Role of Quality Infrastructure (Abu Dhabi: September 2017), http://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2017/Sep/IRENA_Solar_PV_Markets_Report_2017.pdf. 553
  152. Anna Flavia Rochas, “PV developers invest in pre-build module checks to protect margins”, New Energy Update, 7 June 2017, http://analysis.newenergyupdate.com/pv-insider/pv-developers-invest-pre-build-module-checks-protect-margins.554
  153. See, for example, Finlay Colville, “Top 10 module suppliers in 2017”, PV-Tech, 15 January 2018, https://www.pv-tech.org/editors-blog/top-10-module-suppliers-in-2017; Tom Kenning, “President Duterte inaugurates expanded 800 MW Philippines solar module factory”, PV-Tech, 23 August 2017, https://www.pv-tech.org/news/president-duterte-inaugurates-expanded-800mw-philippines-solar-module-facto; Ilias Tsagas, “Hanwha Q-Cells to inaugurate Turkey panel factory in November”, PV Magazine, 15 August 2017, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2017/08/15/hanwha-q-cells-to-inaugurate-its-turkey-panel-factory-in-november/; “Seraphim Solar increases module production capacity to 360 MW to meet growing PV demand”, Renewable Energy World, 10 May 2017, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2017/05/seraphim-solar-increases-module-production-capacity-to-360-mw-to-meet-growing-pv-demand.html; “SolarWorld plans to ramp up solar module production in light of ITC ruling”, Renewable Energy World, 25 September 2017, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2017/09/solarworld-plans-to-ramp-up-solar-module-production-in-light-of-itc-ruling.html; Brian Eckhouse, “Tesla’s New York Gigafactory kicks off solar roof production”, Bloomberg, 9 January 2018, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-01-09/tesla-powers-up-new-york-gigafactory-solar-roof-assembly-line; Mark Osborne, “First Solar building second 1.2GW production plant in Vietnam”, PV-Tech, 5 December 2017, https://www.pv-tech.org/news/first-solar-building-second-1.2gw-production-plant-in-vietnam.555
  154. GTM Research, op. cit. note 20.556
  155. Ibid. Cell production in 2016 was estimated to be about 77 GW, with 51.2 GW produced in China, from IEA PVPS, Trends in Photovoltaic Applications 2017, op. cit. note 3, p. 50. Estimates of cell and module production, as well as of production capacity, vary widely, and increasing outsourcing and rebranding render the counting of production and shipments more complex every year, from Paula Mints, “Trying to understand PV shipment numbers: do the math”, Renewable Energy World, 22 March 2016, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2016/03/trying-to-understanding-pv-shipment-numbers-do-the-math.html. An estimated 91.1 GW of cells and modules were shipped in 2017, up 32% over 2016, from Paula Mints, “3@3 on Solar PV: how much solar capacity exists in the world?” Renewable Energy World, 16 April 2018, https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2018/04/3-3-on-solar-pv-how-much-solar-capacity-exists-in-the-world.html. 557
  156. GTM Research, op. cit. note 20. Thin film’s market share was 5%, from Paula Mints, cited in Jennifer Runyon, “From the editor”, Renewable Energy World, January/February 2018.558
  157. Ninth year based on data in this section and developments in past years from Paula Mints, “Reality check: the changing world of PV manufacturing”, Renewable Energy World, 5 October 2011, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2011/10/reality-check-the-changing-world-of-pv-manufacturing; Paula Mints, “The solar pricing struggle”, Renewable Energy World, 28 August 2013, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2013/08/the-solar-pricing-struggle; Paula Mints, “2015 top ten PV cell manufacturers”, Renewable Energy World, 8 April 2016, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2016/04/2015-top-ten-pv-cell-manufacturers.html. 559
  158. Asia’s share of global module production from GTM Research, op. cit. note 20; China’s share of cell production capacity from Paula Mints in Jennifer Runyon and Paula Mints, “3@3 on solar PV: POWER-GEN, energy imbalance market, solar trade case”, Renewable Energy World, 11 December 2017, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2017/12/3-3-on-solarpv-power-gen-energy-imbalance-market-solar-trade-case.html. China’s module exports were an estimated 37.9 GW in 2017, up 16.6 GW from 2016; exports to the United States surged in the fourth quarter, to 12 times that of the first three quarters, from Liu Yuanyuan, “China’s solar PV module exports reached 37.9 GW in 2017”, Renewable Energy World, 12 March 2018, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2018/03/china-s-pv-module-exports-reached-37-9-gw-in-2017.html. China’s share was about 57% of global shipments in 2017, and a larger share if one accounts for Chinese-owned production capacity elsewhere in Asia, from Mints, op. cit. note 3. 560
  159. GTM Research, op. cit. note 20.561
  160. Colville, op. cit. note 153. 562
  161. PV-Tech and Solar Media Ltd, January 2018, cited in Ibid.563
  162. SolarPower Europe, op. cit. note 13, pp. 24-25; Ilias Tsagas, “Turkey publishes antidumping fee and list for China-based PV manufacturers”, PV Magazine, 3 April 2017, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2017/04/03/turkey-publishes-antidumping-fee-and-list-for-china-based-pv-manufacturers/; EU from “EU import tariffs on Chinese solar modules and cells extended by 18 months”, PV Europe, 3 March 2017, http://www.pveurope.eu/News/Markets-Money/EU-import-tariffs-on-Chinese-solar-modules-and-cells-extended-by-18-months, from Arthur Neslen, “Solar industry says EU tariffs on Chinese imports will raise panel prices”, The Guardian (UK), 8 September 2017, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/sep/08/solar-industry-says-eu-tariffs-chinese-imports-will-raise-panel-prices, and from Zheng Xin and Zheng Yiran, “Ministry welcomes EU’s moves on solar panel tariffs”, China Daily, 19 September 2017, http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2017-09/19/content_32184846.htm; India from Anindya Upadhyay, “India initiates dumping probe into Chinese solar imports”, Renewable Energy World, 25 July 2017, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2017/07/india-initiates-dumping-probe-into-chinese-solar-imports.html, and from Vinay Rustagi, “Safeguard duty – Indian government scores an own goal”, Bridge to India, 12 January 2018, http://www.bridgetoindia.com/safeguard-duty-indian-government-scores-goal/; India imposed duty on glass from IEA PVPS, Trends in Photovoltaic Applications 2017, op. cit. note 3, p. 57; United States from Jennifer Delony, “Trump approves 30 percent tariff on solar panel imports; trade industry ‘disappointed’”, Renewable Energy World, 22 January 2018, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2018/01/trump-approves-30-percent-tariff-on-solar-panel-imports-trade-industry-disappointed.html; “US tariffs slice 7.6 GW off solar forecast; corporate PPAs rise 26% in 2017”, New Energy Update, 31 January 2018, http://newenergyupdate.com/pv-insider/us-tariffs-slice-76-gw-solar-forecast-corporate-ppas-rise-26-2017; Henning Gloystein and Christoph Steitz, “U.S. solar panel import tariff to hit European, Asian manufacturers”, Reuters, 23 January 2018, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trade-tariffs-solar/u-s-solar-panel-import-tariff-to-hit-european-asian-manufacturers-idUSKBN1FC0EZ. 564
  163. See, for example, Ian Clover, “Chinese module prices rise 10% above forecast, causing problems for India”, PV Magazine, 25 August 2017, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2017/08/25/chinese-module-prices-rise-10-above-forecast-causing-problems-for-india/; GTM Research and SEIA, op. cit. note 38, pp. 5, 7, 12.565
  164. Cancelled or delayed from Joe Ryan and Chris Martin, “Solar developers hoard panels as U.S. tariff threat looms”, Bloomberg, 11 September 2017, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-09-11/solar-developers-hoarding-panels-as-threat-of-u-s-tariffs-looms; “US solar tariffs: Korea to file WTO petition, Mexico considers legal action, module costs to increase”, PV Magazine, 24 January 2018, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2018/01/24/us-solar-tariffs-korea-to-file-wto-petition-mexico-considers-legal-action-module-costs-to-increase/; Jeff Mosier, “$100 million Texas solar project on hold as Trump administration threatens tariff”, Dallas News, 9 November 2017, https://www.dallasnews.com/business/energy/2017/11/09/100-million-texas-solar-project-hold-trump-administration-threatens-tariff. See also Ana Swanson and Brad Plumer, “Trump’s solar tariffs are clouding the industry’s future”, New York Times, 23 January 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/23/us/politics/trump-solar-tariffs.html; Tom Kenning, “US solar tariffs to hike module costs 9-10 cents in one year – GTM and Deutsche Bank”, PV-Tech, 23 January 2018, https://www.pv-tech.org/news/us-solar-tariffs-to-hike-module-costs-9-10-cents-in-year-one-gtm-and-deutsc; kWh analytics, “To offset tariffs, US solar market looks to financial innovations”, S&P Global Market Intelligence, 14 February 2018, http://www.kwhanalytics.com/to-offset-tariffs-us-solar-market-looks-to-financial-innovations/. 566
  165. New lows from Bridge to India, op. cit. note 48; bid prices were down 44% in 16 months, from idem.; Devjyot Ghoshal, “Solar is now cheaper than coal-based electricity in India, but the math makes no sense”, Quartz India, 18 May 2017, https://qz.com/984656/solar-power-is-now-cheaper-than-coal-based-electricity-in-india-but-the-math-makes-no-sense/; “Changing demand-supply landscape in the Indian solar market”, Bridge to India, 23 October 2017, http://www.bridgetoindia.com/changing-demand-supply-landscape-indian-solar-market/; Saumy Prateek, “Over 2 GW of solar tenders postponed due to uncertainty around safeguard duty”, Mercom India, 27 February 2018, https://mercomindia.com/over-2gw-tender-postponed/.567
  166. Upadhyay and Singh, op. cit. note 136; Kenning, op. cit. note 136; Ghoshal, op. cit. note 165; Saran, op. cit. note 2.568
  167. “Indian developers caught between a rock and a hard place”, Bridge to India, 28 August 2017, http://www.bridgetoindia.com/indian-developers-caught-rock-hard-place/; Saran, op. cit. note 2; Anindya Upadhyay, “China’s solar appetite eats into India’s clean energy effort”, Bloomberg, 24 August 2017, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-08-24/china-s-solar-appetite-eats-into-india-s-effort-on-clean-energy; Gagan Sidhu, “India solar – unboxing valuation”, Renewable Energy World, 22 September 2017, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2017/09/india-solar-unboxing-valuation.html; Clover, op. cit. note 163; India relied on imports, mostly from China, to meet as much as 85% of demand in 2017, from Bridge to India, op. cit. note 48.569
  168. Ibid., all sources. 570
  169. Anu Bhambhani, “Moody’s credit ratings agency ICRA warns about adverse impact of DISCOMs forcing renewable energy developers to renegotiate PPAs”, Taiyang News, 22 August 2017, http://taiyangnews.info/markets/moodys-warns-about-retroactive-cuts-in-india/. 571
  170. “Solar’s tumbling costs start claiming victims”, Bloomberg, 29 November 2017, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-11-29/solar-s-tumble-starts-claiming-victims-as-trina-rethinks-india.572
  171. Europe from, for example, Liam Stoker, “Utilities ‘changing the appearance’ of European solar”, PV-Tech, 8 March 2017, https://www.pv-tech.org/news/utilities-changing-the-appearance-of-european-solar; United States from, for example, Roselund, op. cit. note 41. 573
  172. EDF Group, “The EDF Group pours all its energies into the new Solar Power Plan with a view to developing 30 GW of solar capacity in France by 2035”, press release (Paris: 11 December 2017), https://www.edf-energies-nouvelles.com/en/11-dec-2017-the-edf-group-pours-all-its-energies-into-the-new-solar-power-plan-with-a-view-to-developing-30-gw-of-solar-capacity-in-france-by-2035/; Tom Kenning, “EDF to develop 30GW of solar in France by 2030”, PV-Tech, 11 December 2017, https://www.pv-tech.org/news/edf-to-develop-30gw-of-solar-in-france-by-2035. 574
  173. BP (United Kingdom) partnered with UK developer Lightsource to re-enter the solar arena and focus on building and operating plants, from Beetz and Clover, op. cit. note 68; BP, “Lightsource and BP join forces to drive growth in solar power development worldwide”, press release (London: 15 December 2017), https://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/media/press-releases/bp-alternative-energy-announcement-december-2017.html. Shell (Netherlands) purchased stakes in a company that develops and operates solar plants across the United States, from Ron Bousso, “Shell ventures back into solar”, Reuters, 15 January 2018, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-shell-solar/shell-ventures-back-into-solar-idUSKBN1F42FQ. Total (France) created a new division, Total Solar, to develop solar projects, from “France: Total Solar and SunPower successful in solar rounds”, Business Wire (Paris: 12 October 2017), https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20171012005522/en/France-Total-Solar-SunPower-successful-solar-rounds. Total also acquired a share in EREN Renewable Energy (France) to develop solar plants in emerging markets, from Total, “Total partners with EREN Renewable Energy to expand its renewable business”, press release (Paris: 19 September 2017), https://www.total.com/en/media/news/press-releases/total-partners-eren-renewable-energy-expand-its-renewable-business. Thai coal-mining giant, Banpu, announced plans to develop 300 MW of solar PV, from Brian Publicover, “Southeast Asia presents patchwork of PV potential”, Unlocking Solar Capital, 6 September 2017, https://asia.unlockingsolarcapital.com/news/2017/9/6/southeast-asia-presents-patchwork-of-pv-potential. US electric car maker Tesla acquired US installer SolarCity in 2016, and began producing its Solar Roof tiles in late 2017, from Simon Alvarez, “Tesla Solar Roof tile production begins at Gigafactory 2, customer installs soon to follow”, Teslarati, 9 January 2018, https://www.teslarati.com/tesla-solar-roof-production-begins-gigafactory-2-buffalo-ny/. China’s BYD, one of the leading global battery and EV companies, opened a module assembly facility in Brazil, from SolarPower Europe, op. cit. note 13, p. 34.575
  174. See, for example, Hayley Williams, “Aussies are more interested in solar batteries than ever”, Giz Modo, 29 June 2017, https://www.gizmodo.com.au/2017/06/aussies-are-more-interested-in-solar-batteries-than-ever/; Sandra Enkhardt, “Germany’s KfW granted incentives to 3,200 solar storage projects so far this year”, PV Magazine, 22 June 2017, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2017/06/22/germanys-kfw-granted-incentives-to-3200-solar-storage-projects-so-far-this-year/; “Utilities see value in storage alongside PV, and will pay”, BNEF, 12 June 2017, https://about.bnef.com/blog/utilities-see-value-storage-alongside-pv-will-pay/; Michael J. Coren, “When the sun don’t shine”, Quartz, 6 December 2017, https://qz.com/1147953/a-new-project-will-supply-chile-with-solar-power-even-at-night/; Conor Ryan, “Softbank Vision Fund signs MOU to develop 3GW of solar, energy storage in Saudi Arabia”, PV-Tech, 25 October 2017, https://www.pv-tech.org/news/softbank-vision-fund-signs-mou-to-develop-3gw-of-solar-energy-storage-in-sa; Tom Kenning, “Softbank and Mitsubishi to build 102MW solar-plus-storage plant in Japan”, PV-Tech, 2 November 2017, https://www.pv-tech.org/news/softbank-and-mitsubishi-to-build-102mw-solar-plus-storage-plant-in-japan; Gavin Bade and Peter Maloney, “Updated: Tucson Electric signs solar + storage PPA for ‘less than 4.5¢/kWh’”, Utility Dive, 23 May 2017, http://www.utilitydive.com/news/updated-tucson-electric-signs-solar-storage-ppa-for-less-than-45kwh/443293/.576
  175. See, for example, BNEF, “Solar and distributed energy trends in emerging markets”, Sun Connect News, 13 December 2017, http://www.sun-connect-news.org/articles/market/details/solar-and-distributed-energy-trends-in-emerging-markets/.577
  176. See, for example, Beetz and Clover, op. cit. note 68; Jeff St. John, “Ikea debuts residential solar-plus-storage in the UK”, Greentech Media, 2 August 2017, https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/ikea-debuts-residential-solar-plus-storage-in-the-uk; Sophie Vorrath, “Australia battery market hots up, as Sonnen inks major distribution deal”, One Step Off the Grid, 3 July 2017, https://onestepoffthegrid.com.au/australia-battery-market-hots-sonnen-inks-major-distribution-deal/; Rachita Prasad, “Wartsila set to tap India’s solar power potential”, Economic Times of India, 10 October 2017, http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/energy/power/wartsila-set-to-tap-indias-solar-power-potential/articleshow/61013112.cms; Bernd Radowitz, “Trina Solar to enter storage market and present bi-facial module”, Recharge News, 18 January 2017, http://www.rechargenews.com/solar/1207766/trina-solar-to-enter-storage-market-and-present-bi-facial-module; “Solar O&M firms seek energy storage, warehouse gains in hunt for value”, New Energy Update, 8 November 2017, http://analysis.newenergyupdate.com/pv-insider/solar-om-firms-seek-energy-storage-warehouse-gains-hunt-value.578
  177. For information on innovations and advances, see text and sources in the following several paragraphs.579
  178. Jennifer Runyon, op. cit. note 15, pp. 14-17; Chris Martin, “First Solar making panels more cheaply than China’s top supplier”, Bloomberg, 14 April 2016, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-04-14/first-solar-making-panels-more-cheaply-than-china-s-top-supplier; “First Solar discontinues TetraSun product line, switches to Series 5 thin film”, Solar Novus, 5 July 2016, http://www.solarnovus.com/first-solar-discontinues-tetrasun-product-line-switches-to-series-5-thin-film_N10110.html; functionality and grid requirements from Roberto Labastida, “Advanced module technologies moving onto the main stage”, Renewable Energy World, 31 October 2016, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2016/10/advanced-module-technologies-moving-onto-the-main-stage.html. 580
  179. “First Solar presents first functional Series 6 module”, Business Wire, 5 December 2017, http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20171205006122/en/Solar-Presents-Functional-Series-6-Module; reduce costs from IEA PVPS, Trends in Photovoltaic Applications 2017, op. cit. note 3, p. 64. Reportedly, the factory’s robots produce panels in a fraction of the time required by leading Chinese solar companies to produce similar-size silicon panels, from Chris Martin, “First Solar is using robots to better tap the sun”, Bloomberg, 24 January 2018, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-01-24/first-solar-is-using-robots-to-better-tap-the-sun.581
  180. See, for example, Stephanie Essig et al., “Raising the one-sun conversion efficiency of III-V/Sisolar cells to 32.8% for two junctions and 35.9% for three junctions”, Nature Energy, 25 August 2017, https://www.csem.ch/Page.aspx?pid=47016; “New world record efficiencies and technical advances – some highlights of the conference”, EU PV SEC News, 12 October 2017, http://www.solarnews.es/internacional/2017/10/13/eu-pvsec-2017-new-world-record-efficiencies-and-technical-advances-35th-eu-pvsec-from-24-28-september-2018-in-brussels-belgium/; Mark Hutchins, “Swiss researchers team with NREL to break 35% cell efficiency”, PV Magazine, 28 August 2017, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2017/08/28/swiss-researchers-team-with-nrel-to-break-35-cell-efficiency/; Patrick Caughill, “A company in Japan just broke the world record for solar panel efficiency”, Futurism, 1 April 2017, https://futurism.com/company-japan-just-broke-world-record-solar-panel-efficiency/; Charles Thurston, “Trina IBC solar cell record ‘significant’”, Renewable Energy World, 26 May 2017, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2017/05/trina-ibc-solar-cell-record-significant.html; Plamena Tisheva, “Solar Frontier reaches 22.9% efficiency on thin-film CIS cell”, Renewables Now, 20 December 2017, https://renewablesnow.com/news/solar-frontier-reaches-229-efficiency-on-thin-film-cis-cell-595223/; LONGi Solar, “Conversion efficiency at 20.41%, LONGi Solar creates world record of monocrystalline PERC module”, press release (Xi’an, China: 25 January 2018), http://en.longi-solar.com/Home/Events/press_detail/id/39_Conversion_Efficiency_at_20.41_%2C_LONGi_Solar_Creates_World_Record_of_Monocrystalline_PERC_Module.html.582
  181. Schmela, op. cit. note 72; Shravan Chunduri, “The latest on PERC – solar’s hottest cell technology”, Taiyang News, 16 April 2017, http://taiyangnews.info/reports/taiyangnews-perc-report-2017/. 583
  182. LONGi Solar, “At 23.6%, Chinese solar manufacturer LONGi Solar breaks its own world record for the highest efficiency of monocrystalline PERC solar cells”, press release (Tokyo: 28 February 2018), http://en.longi-solar.com/Home/Events/press_detail/id/42_At_23.6_%2C_Chinese_solar_manufacturer_LONGi_Solar_breaks_its_own_world_record_for_the_highest_efficiency_of_monocrystalline_PERC_solar_cells.html. 584
  183. Fu et al., op. cit. note 134, p. vi. 585
  184. See, for example, Shravan Chunduri, “TaiyangNews analysis on why solar modules are starting to look different now”, Taiyang News, 21 September 2017, http://taiyangnews.info/reports/advanced-solar-module-technology-report-2017/; Tan , op. cit. note 20; “Interview: JinkoSolar CEO discusses half-cut cell technology”, PV Magazine, 13 October 2017, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2017/10/13/interview-jinkosolar-ceo-discusses-half-cut-cell-technology/; Kelly Pickerel, “What’s next for cSi solar modules? Experts say half-cut cells and more busbars”, Solar Power World, 11 July 2017, https://www.solarpowerworldonline.com/2017/07/whats-next-csi-solar-modules-experts-say-half-cut-cells-busbars/; “Half cut solar cells: new standard in product differentiation?” Sinovoltaics, 18 April 2016, http://sinovoltaics.com/solar-cells/half-cut-solar-cells-the-new-standard/. 586
  185. Achievements and durability challenges from Chisaki Watanabe, “The wonder material that may make spray-on solar PV reality”, Renewable Energy World, 23 March 2017, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2017/03/the-wonder-material-that-may-make-spray-on-solar-pv-reality.html; Brown et al., op. cit. note 134; Mark Hutchins, “Solliance hits new perovskite milestone”, PV Magazine, 21 November 2017, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2017/11/21/solliance-hits-new-perovskite-milestone/; Helmholtz Zentrum Berlin, “Perovskite solar cells: perfection not required!”, press release (Berlin: 1 January 2018), http://www.helmholtz-berlin.de/pubbin/news_seite?nid=14772&sprache=en&typoid=1; Mark Shwartz, “Insect eyes inspire new solar cell design by Stanford researchers”, Renewable Energy World, 14 September 2017, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2017/09/insect-eyes-inspire-new-solar-cell-design-by-stanford-researchers.html; start-ups from Brown et al., op. cit. note 134.587
  186. Jennifer Delony, “Green builder to begin covering office buildings with perovskite solar cells”, Renewable Energy World, 19 January 2018, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2018/01/green-builder-to-begin-covering-office-buildings-with-perovskite-cells.html; University of Exeter, “Buildings to generate their own power with innovative glass blocks”, press release (Exeter: 15 August 2017), http://www.exeter.ac.uk/news/research/title_602131_en.html; Marija Djordjevic, “BIPV: researchers develop solar glass blocks to power houses”, PV Magazine, 24 August 2017, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2017/08/24/bipv-researchers-develop-solar-glass-blocks-to-power-houses/. Sweden-based builder Skanska secured a deal in early 2018 with Polish manufacturer Saule Technologies that will enable Skanska to cover office buildings with printed perovskite cells at commercial scale; Saule Technologies began working on the application of ink-jet printing for free-form perovskite solar modules in 2014, and is developing a large-scale, prototype production line for its product, from Delony, op. cit. this note. Researchers at Exeter University (UK) created glass blocks with embedded solar cells that can generate electricity, allow for natural daylighting and provide thermal insulation; they aimed to take these blocks to the market in 2018, from University of Exeter, op. cit. this note.588
  187. Charles Thurston, “Fresh designs in tracking, racking and mounting at Intersolar NA”, Renewable Energy World, 14 July 2017, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2017/07/fresh-designs-in-tracking-racking-and-mounting-at-intersolar-na.html.589
  188. See, for example, “Quality Roundtable at Solar Power International 2017”, PV Magazine Group, 12 September 2017, https://www.pv-magazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Presentation-QRT-SPI.pdf; Eileen Greene, "DNV GL releases 2017 PV module reliability scorecard”, press release (Munich: DNV GL, 1 June 2017), https://www.dnvgl.com/news/dnv-gl-releases-2017-pv-module-reliability-scorecard-93447; IRENA, op. cit. note 151. 590
  189. “Solar revenue risk plays growing role in inverter contracts”, New Energy Update, 23 August 2017, http://analysis.newenergyupdate.com/pv-insider/solar-revenue-risk-plays-growing-role-inverter-contracts; “US solar market boom cuts O&M costs years ahead of forecast”, New Energy Update, 21 November 2016, http://newenergyupdate.com/pv-insider/us-solar-market-boom-cuts-om-costs-years-ahead-forecast. 591
  190. New materials and increase system yield from, for example, Anna Flávia Rochas, “Global technology suppliers raise inverter output using new materials”, New Energy Update, 14 September 2016, http://analysis.newenergyupdate.com/pv-insider/global-technology-suppliers-raise-inverter-output-using-new-materials; “Solar revenue risk plays growing role in inverter contracts”, New Energy Update, 23 August 2017, http://analysis.newenergyupdate.com/pv-insider/solar-revenue-risk-plays-growing-role-inverter-contracts. Residential systems from, for example, Mark Osborne, “‘Huawei FusionHome Smart Energy Solution’ is its first residential product offering”, PV-Tech, 31 May 2017, https://www.pv-tech.org/products/huawei-fusionhome-smart-energy-solution-is-its-first-residential-product-of; Mark Osborne, “Huawei starting ‘FusionHome’ smart energy system sales in Australia”, PV-Tech, 31 January 2018, https://www.pv-tech.org/news/huawei-starting-fusionhome-smart-energy-system-sales-in-australia. 592
  191. Panel manufacturers from Travis Hoium, “Why power inverters are the key to the solar industry”, The Motley Fool, 28 October 2017, https://www.fool.com/investing/2017/10/28/why-power-inverters-are-the-key-to-the-solar-indus.aspx; inverter manufacturers from SolarPower Europe, op. cit. note 13, p. 34.593
  192. Cedric Brehaut, “Low O&M prices drive ‘digitalization’ and new technologies”, Greentech Media, 25 January 2018, https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/low-om-prices-drive-digitalization; “Solar O&M firms seek energy storage, warehouse gains in hunt for value”, New Energy Update, 8 November 2017, http://analysis.newenergyupdate.com/pv-insider/solar-om-firms-seek-energy-storage-warehouse-gains-hunt-value; “US Solar market boom cuts O&M costs years ahead of forecast”, New Energy Update: PV, 21 November 2016, http://analysis.newenergyupdate.com/pv-insider/us-solar-market-boom-cuts-om-costs-years-ahead-forecast; SolarPower Europe, personal communication with REN21, 1 April 2017; Ingeteam, “Ingeteam continues its international expansion and strengthens its leadership position in O&M”, press release (Milwaukee, WI: 12 June 2017), http://www.ingeteam.com/Pressroom/Corporate/tabid/1574/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/1879/Ingeteam-continues-its-international-expansion-and-strengthens-its-leadership-position-in-OM.aspx. As of 2016, the global market for megawatt-scale solar O&M and asset management exceeded 180 GW, from SolarPower Europe, op. cit. note 13, p. 33. 594
  193. SolarPower Europe, op. cit. note 13, p. 32.595
  194. “Maintenance is the latest battlefield in Japan’s solar industry”, Nikkei, 13 July 2017, https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Trends/Maintenance-is-the-latest-battlefield-in-Japan-s-solar-industry; Ingeteam, op. cit. note 192.596
  195. SolarPower Europe, op. cit. note 13, p. 32; Chijioke Mama, “Solar O&M in Nigeria: the challenges that lie ahead”, The Solar Future, 18 January 2017, http://nigeria.thesolarfuture.com/news-source/2017/1/18/solar-om-in-nigeria-the-challenges-that-lie-ahead.597
  196. SolarPower Europe, op. cit. note 13, p. 33; “US solar market boom cuts O&M costs years ahead of forecast”, PV Insider, 21 November 2016, http://analysis.pv-insider.com/us-solar-market-boom-cuts-om-costs-years-ahead-forecast; Alyssa Pek, “Huawei on digitalisation, subsidy-free solar and the future of the industry”, SolarPower Europe Newsletter, December 2017, http://solarpowereurope.org/index.php?id=1003&ADMCMD_cooluri=1; Brehaut, op. cit. note 192; Jason Deign, “Rapid-cleaning robots set to cut solar energy losses, labor costs”, New Energy Update, 15 March 2017, http://analysis.newenergyupdate.com/pv-insider/rapid-cleaning-robots-set-cut-solar-energy-losses-labor-costs. Robotic cleaning systems can increase system output while reducing or eliminating the need for water, and provide savings on vehicle and labour costs, from idem. 598
  197. IRENA and IEA PVPS, End-of-Life Management: Solar Photovoltaic Panels (Abu Dhabi: June 2016), pp. 11-16, http://www.irena.org/DocumentDownloads/Publications/IRENA_IEAPVPS_End-of-Life_Solar_PV_Panels_2016.pdf, and from other sources provided below. In addition, the topic of recycling is at an early stage among government and other entities in India, from Frank Haugwitz, AECEA, personal communication with REN21, 25 April 2018. 599
  198. Ibid. 600
  199. Nate Berg, “What will we do with all those solar panels when their useful life is over?” Ensia, 11 April 2018, https://ensia.com/features/solar-recycling/. 601
  200. Emiliano Bellini, “Veolia opens solar module recycling facility in France”, PV Magazine, 22 March 2017, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2017/03/22/veolia-opens-solar-module-recycling-facility-in-france/. EU law requires that all panel producers that supply the EU market must finance the costs of collecting and recycling panels put on the market in Europe, from idem.602
  201. DWR eco, op. cit. note 81.603

CONCENTRATING SOLAR THERMAL POWER (CSP)

  1. Data are compiled from the following primary sources: New Energy Update, “CSP today global tracker”, http://tracker.newenergyupdate.com/tracker/projects, viewed on numerous dates leading up to 27 April 2018; US National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), “Concentrating solar power projects”, https://www.nrel.gov/csp/solarpaces/, with the page and its subpages viewed on numerous dates leading up to 27 April 2018 (some subpages are referenced individually throughout this section); Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21), Renewables 2017 Global Status Report (Paris: 2017), pp. 72-74, 171, http://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/17-8399_GSR_2017_Full_Report_0621_Opt.pdf; CSP World, “CSP world map”, http://cspworld.org/cspworldmap, with the page and its subpages viewed on numerous dates leading up to 3 April 2018; International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), Renewable Capacity Statistics 2018 (Abu Dhabi: 2018), http://www.irena.org/publications/2018/Mar/Renewable-Capacity-Statistics-2018; Luis Crespo, European Solar Thermal Electricity Association, Brussels, personal communication with REN21, 20 April 2018. In some cases, information from the above sources was verified against additional country-specific sources, as cited in the rest of the endnotes for this section. Global CSP data are based on commercial facilities only; demonstration or pilot facilities are excluded. Discrepancies between REN21 data and other reference sources are due primarily to differences in categorisation and thresholds for inclusion of specific CSP facilities in overall global totals. Figure 28 based on idem, all sources.604
  2. Ibid.605
  3. Ibid.; SolarPACES, “Xina Solar One CSP plant completes first month of operation”, 1 November 2017, http://www.solarpaces.org/xina-solar-one-csp-plant-completes-first-month-operation/. 606
  4. See sources in endnote 1. 607
  5. Figure 29 based on Ibid.608
  6. Ibid.; Jason Deign, “Concentrating solar power isn’t viable without storage, say experts”, Greentech Media, 1 November 2016, https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/is-csp-viable-without-storage; Jennie Jorgenson et al., “Comparing the net cost of CSP-TES to PV deployed with battery storage”, AIP Conference Proceedings, vol. 1734, no. 1 (2016), https://aip.scitation.org/doi/abs/10.1063/1.4949183. 609
  7. See sources in endnote 1.610
  8. Ibid.611
  9. Ibid.; SolarPACES, op. cit. note 3. 612
  10. Terence Creamer, “100 MW Kathu CSP plant to be operational in 2018”, Engineering News, 10 May 2016, http://www.engineeringnews.co.za/article/100-mw-kathu-csp-plant-to-be-operational-in-2018-2016-05-10; NREL, “Ilanga 1”, 22 May 2017, https://www.nrel.gov/csp/solarpaces/project_detail.cfm/projectID=4291. 613
  11. Antoinette Slabbert, “Eskom stifles GDP growth by refusing to sign up IPPs”, Moneyweb, 20 January 2017, https://www.moneyweb.co.za/news/south-africa/renewable-ipps-need-movement-from-eskom-this-quarter-sarec/. 614
  12. Sibongile Khumalo, “Jeff Radebe signs R56bn contract with renewable power producers”, fin24, 4 April 2018, https://www.fin24.com/Economy/Eskom/jeff-radebe-signs-long-delayed-renewable-power-deals-20180404. 615
  13. SolarPACES, “China releases shortlist for 1st 20 demo CSP projects”, 13 September 2017, http://www.solarpaces.org/china-releases-shortlist-1st-20-demo-csp-projects/. 616
  14. Ibid.617
  15. Ibid.; Crespo, op. cit. note 1; Frank Haugwitz, Asia Europe Clean Energy (Solar) Advisory Co. Ltd. (AECEA), personal communication with REN21, 19 April 2018; Sara Tang, Chinese Renewable Energy Industries Association, Beijing, personal communication with REN21, April 2018; Piero De Bonis, European Commission, Brussels, personal communication with REN21, 18 April 2018; SolarPACES, op. cit. note 13. 618
  16. NREL, “Dadri ISCC Plant”, 23 November 2016, https://www.nrel.gov/csp/solarpaces/project_detail.cfm/projectID=5315. 619
  17. SolarPACES, “Morocco’s Noor II begins synchronization to grid”, 14 January 2018, http://www.solarpaces.org/moroccos-noor-ii-begins-synchronization-grid/. 620
  18. Ibid. 621
  19. See sources in endnote 1. 622
  20. MMYPEM, “Commissioning at the Plot B in Ashalim Solar Thermal Power Station”, 22 February 2018, http://mmypem.es/en/commissioning-at-the-plot-b-in-ashalim-solar-thermal-power-station/; Cat DiStasio, “Israel building world’s tallest solar tower to power 130,000 households”, inhabitat, 1 May 2017, https://inhabitat.com/israel-building-worlds-tallest-solar-tower-to-power-130000-households/; Forward, “Israel’s epic solar tower soars to the sun”, 5 January 2017, https://forward.com/fast-forward/359212/israels-epic-solar-tower-soars-to-the-sun/. 623
  21. Negev Energy, “Ashalim (Plot A) Project 110 MW CSP Thermo-Solar Power Plant”, presentation to the Eilat-Eilot International Conference, 29 November 2016, http://www.eilateilot.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Ashalim-Project-Negev-Energy.pdf. 624
  22. Both of these facilities are expected to enter operation in 2018, from CSP Focus, “Saudi Arabian hybrid solar-gas plants produce world cheapest CSP”, 18 July 2018, http://www.cspfocus.cn/en/market/detail_262.htm. 625
  23. HelioCSP, “Kuwait Shagaya 50MW solar concentrated solar power project operates in 2018”, 27 June 2016, http://helioscsp.com/kuwait-shagaya-50mw-solar-concentrated-solar-power-project-operates-in-2018/. 626
  24. Joshua Hill, “Dubai awards 700 megawatt solar CSP contract for mammoth Mohammed Bin Rashid Al Maktoum Solar Park”, CleanTechnica, 19 September 2017, https://cleantechnica.com/2017/09/19/dubai-awards-700-mw-solar-csp-contract-mammoth-mohammed-bin-rashid-al-maktoum-solar-park/; Steve Hanley, “Dubai will soon be home to world’s largest concentrated solar facility”, CleanTechnica, 19 September 2017, https://cleantechnica.com/2017/09/19/dubai-will-soon-home-worlds-largest-concentrated-solar-facility/. 627
  25. Marija Djordjevic, “Chile: 62 MW commissioned at Cerro Dominador solar complex”, PV Magazine, 29 August 2017, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2017/08/29/chile-62-mw-commissioned-at-cerro-dominator-solar-complex/; Electricidad, “Planta termosolar de proyecto Cerro Dominador entraria operaciones en 2019”, 14 March 2017, http://www.revistaei.cl/2017/03/14/planta-termosolar-de-proyecto-cerro-dominadorentraria-en-operaciones-en-2019/; Andrew Baker, “Abengoa restarts work on stalled Chile solar project”, 14 December 2016, https://www.bnamericas.com/en/news/electricpower/%20abengoa-re-launches-work-on-stalled-chile-solar-project. 628
  26. Belén Gallego, “Cerro Dominador project: Putting Chile back on the CSP map”, ATA Insights via LinkedIn, 22 December 2017, https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/cerro-dominador-project-putting-chile-back-csp-map-bel%C3%A9n-gallego/. 629
  27. Cerro Dominador, “Cerro Dominador solar project connects its first 62 MW to the grid”, 25 August 2017, https://cerrodominador.com/news/cerro-dominador-solar-project-connects-its-first-mw-to-the-grid/?lang=en. 630
  28. Power Technology, “Aurora solar energy project”, https://www.power-technology.com/projects/aurora-solar-energy-project/, viewed 4 May 2018. 631
  29. See sources in endnote 1; SolarPACES, “CSP capacity grew 2% to 5.13 GW in 2017”, 8 February 2018, http://www.solarpaces.org/csp-capacity-grew-2-5-13-gw-2017/; Tildy Bayar, “Combined CHP, CSP and ORC district heating plant opens in Denmark”, Decentralized Energy, 26 March 2018, http://www.decentralized-energy.com/articles/2018/03/combined-chp-csp-and-orc-district-heating-plant-opens-in-denmark.html. 632
  30. Bayar, op. cit. note 29. 633
  31. Stratton Report, “SUNCIM to develop a 9-MW Fresnel concentrating solar plant in France”, 13 October 2016, http://strattonreport.com/news/suncnim-develop-9-mw-fresnel-concentrating-solar-plant-france/; Helioscsp, “SUNSNIM 9MWe Fresnel DSG concentrated solar power plant with energy storage”, 8 August 2017, http://helioscsp.com/process-of-suncnim-9mwe-fresnel-dsg-concentrated-solar-power-plant-with-energy-storage/. 634
  32. See sources in endnote 1; RED Eléctrica de Espana, The Spanish Electricity System: Preliminary Report 2017 (Madrid: 2018), p. 5, http://www.ree.es/sites/default/files/downloadable/avance_informe_sistema_electrico_2017_eng.pdf.635
  33. Crespo, op. cit. note 1.636
  34. See sources in endnote 1. 637
  35. Ibid. 638
  36. Susan Kraemer, “Sandia Labs R&D helped SolarReserve hit 6 cents CSP”, SolarPACES, 5 September 2017, http://www.solarpaces.org/research-resulted-solarreserve-record-6-cents-csp/; Grey Cells Energy, “The Aurora CSP Project, South Australia”, January 2018, https://greycellsenergy.com/examples/the-aurora-csp-project-south-australia/; Susan Kraemer, “SolarReserve breaks CSP price record with 6 cent contract”, SolarPACES, 25 August 2017, http://www.solarpaces.org/solarreserve-breaks-csp-price-record-6-cent-contract/. 639
  37. Ibid., all sources. 640
  38. Susan Kraemer, “SolarReserve bids 24-hour solar at 6.3 cents in Chile”, CleanTechnica, 13 March 2017, https://cleantechnica.com/2017/03/13/solarreserve-bids-24-hour-solar-6-3-cents-chile/; Susan Kraemer, “SolarReserve bids CSP under 5 cents in Chilean auction”, SolarPACES, 29 October 2017, http://www.solarpaces.org/solarreserve-bids-csp-5-cents-chilean-auction/. 641
  39. Susan Kraemer, “How has Spain’s concentrated solar thermal power performed?”, SolarPACES, 30 November 2017, http://www.solarpaces.org/spains-concentrated-solar-thermal-power-performed/. 642
  40. NREL, “DEWA CSP Tower Project”, 24 November 2017, https://www.nrel.gov/csp/solarpaces/project_detail.cfm/projectID=10318; NREL, “DEWA CSP Trough Project”, 24 November 2017, https://www.nrel.gov/csp/solarpaces/project_detail.cfm/projectID=10317. 643
  41. Stephen Lacey, “SolarReserve inks deal with South Australia to supply solar thermal power with storage for 6 cents”, Greentech Media, 14 August 2017, https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/solarreserve-inks-deal-with-south-australia-to-supply-solar-thermal-power-w#gs.S9P1X50. 644
  42. Jason Deign, “Record-low CSP bid in Dubai ignites debate over the technology’s competitiveness”, Greentech Media, 7 July 2017, https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/record-low-csp-dubai-bid-ignites-debate-over-tech-competitiveness#gs.PpjHkuY; Susan Kraemer, “CSP doesn’t compete with PV – it competes with gas”, SolarPACES, 11 October 2017, http://www.solarpaces.org/csp-competes-with-natural-gas-not-pv/. 645
  43. NREL, “Ashalim Plot B”, 22 March 2016, https://www.nrel.gov/csp/solarpaces/project_detail.cfm/projectID=277; NREL, “Ashalim”, 21 July 2015, https://www.nrel.gov/csp/solarpaces/project_detail.cfm/projectID=276; NREL, “Gansu Akesai 50MW Molten Salt Trough project”, 28 September 2016, https://www.nrel.gov/csp/solarpaces/project_detail.cfm/projectID=5306; Andrew Baker, “Abengoa restarts work on stalled Chile solar project”, https://www.bnamericas.com/en/news/electricpower/abengoa-re-launches-work-on-stalled-chile-solar-project/; NREL, “Delingha 50 MW Thermal Oil Parabolic Trough project”, 17 April 2017, https://www.nrel.gov/csp/solarpaces/project_detail.cfm/projectID=4294; NREL, “ISCC Duba 1”, 31 January 2017, https://www.nrel.gov/csp/solarpaces/project_detail.cfm/projectID=4300; NREL, “Gujarat Solar One”, 12 February 2014, https://www.nrel.gov/csp/solarpaces/project_detail.cfm/projectID=263; NREL, “Kathu Solar Park”, 1 March 2018, https://www.nrel.gov/csp/solarpaces/project_detail.cfm/projectID=4290; NREL, “Dacheng Dunhuang 50MW Molten Salt Fresnel project”, 29 September 2016, https://www.nrel.gov/csp/solarpaces/project_detail.cfm/projectID=5311; Helioscsp, “Rayspower Yumen 50 MW Parabolic Trough Concentrated Solar Power project open bid for EPC contractor”, http://helioscsp.com/rayspower-yumen-50-mw-parabolic-trough-concentrated-solar-power-project-open-bid-for-epc-contractor/, 4 March 2017; NREL, “Shagaya CSP project”, 25 November 2015, https://www.nrel.gov/csp/solarpaces/project_detail.cfm/projectID=4296; NREL, “SunCan Dunhuang 100 MW Phase II”, 11 January 2017, https://www.nrel.gov/csp/solarpaces/project_detail.cfm/projectID=4303; Helioscsp, “China SunCan 10 MW MS tower concentrated solar power this December”, 29 November 2016, http://helioscsp.com/china-suncan-10-mw-ms-tower-concentrated-solar-power-this-december/; ESB International, “Waad al Shamal 1,390 MW CCGT & concentrated solar plant”, https://www.esbinternational.ie/our-solutions/case-studies/2016/11/02/waad-al-shamal-1-390-mw-ccgt-concentrated-solar-plant, viewed 4 May 2018; NREL, “Xina Solar One”, 18 October 2017, https://www.nrel.gov/csp/solarpaces/project_detail.cfm/projectID=275; ESI Africa, “Xina Solar One: South Africa’s first energy sale windows project”, 17 August 2017, https://www.esi-africa.com/xina-solar-one-first-energy-sale-windows/; NREL, “Yumen 50MW Molten Salt Tower CSP project”, 12 July 2017, https://www.nrel.gov/csp/solarpaces/project_detail.cfm/projectID=4307; Crespo, op. cit. note 1. 646
  44. Ibid., all sources. 647
  45. SolarPACES, op. cit. note 13; Haugwitz, op. cit. note 15; Tang, op. cit. note 15; De Bonis, op. cit. note 15. 648
  46. Anna Hirtenstein and Mathew Carr, “Solar thermal plants aim to keep lights on at night in Middle East”, Renewable Energy World, 18 July 2018, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2017/07/solar-thermal-plants-aim-to-keep-lights-on-at-night.html. 649
  47. Joshua Hill, “Dubai awards 700 megawatt solar CSP contract for mammoth Mohammed Bin Rashid Al Maktoum Solar Park”, CleanTechnica, 19 September 2017, https://cleantechnica.com/2017/09/19/dubai-awards-700-mw-solar-csp-contract-mammoth-mohammed-bin-rashid-al-maktoum-solar-park/. 650
  48. The Corner, “Abengoa takes another step in its restructuring process with the sale of 25% of Atlantica Yield”, 2 November 2017, http://thecorner.eu/companies/abengoa-takes-another-step-restructuring-process-sale-25-atlantica-yield/68362/; “Spain’s Abengoa posts record 7.6 bln eur loss in 2016”, Reuters, 8 February 2017, https://www.reuters.com/article/abengoa-results/spains-abengoa-posts-record-7-6-bln-eur-loss-in-2016-idUSL5N1GD838; “Abengoa to sell 25% stake in Atlantica yield to Algonquin”, Renewables Now, 2 November 2017, https://renewablesnow.com/news/abengoa-to-sell-25-stake-in-atlantica-yield-to-algonquin-589489/. 651
  49. “Abengoa to sell”, op. cit. note 48; Toby Couture and Mischa Bechberger, “Pain in Spain: New retroactive changes hinder renewable energy”, Renewable Energy World, 19 April 2013, https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2013/04/pain-in-spain-new-retroactive-changes-hinders-renewable-energy.html. 652
  50. Kraemer, “Sandia Labs…”, op. cit. note 36; Grey Cells Energy, op. cit. note 36; Kraemer, “SolarReserve breaks…”, op. cit. note 36; Crespo, op. cit. note 1. 653
  51. Kraemer, “Sandia Labs…”, op. cit. note 36.654
  52. Mahmoud Kassem, “Dubai solar park R&D Investments set to reach Dh500m by 2020”, The National, 30 December 2017, https://www.thenational.ae/business/dubai-solar-park-r-d-investments-set-to-reach-dh500m-by-2020-1.691564. 655
  53. US Department of Energy, “Energy Department announces achievement of SunShot goal, new focus for Solar Energy Office”, press release (Washington, DC: 12 September 2017), https://www.energy.gov/articles/energy-department-announces-achievement-sunshot-goal-new-focus-solar-energy-office; “Funding opportunity announcement: Generation 3 Concentrating Solar Power Systems (Gen3CSP)”, Energy.gov, 11 September 2017, https://www.energy.gov/eere/solar/funding-opportunity-announcement-generation-3-concentrating-solar-power-systems-gen3csp. 656
  54. European Commission, “Draft Common paper from Member States, the EC and stakeholders on the implementation of CSP targets”, 2017, https://setis.ec.europa.eu/system/files/implementation_of_the_csp_targets.pdf; De Bonis, op. cit. note 15. 657

SOLAR THERMAL HEATING AND COOLING

  1. Monika Spörk-Dür, AEE-Institute for Sustainable Technologies (AEE INTEC), Austria, personal communication with REN21, March and April 2018; Werner Weiss and Monika Spörk-Dür, Solar Heat Worldwide. Global Market Development and Trends in 2017, Detailed Market Figures 2016 (Gleisdorf, Austria: International Energy Agency (IEA) Solar Heating and Cooling Programme (SHC), 2018), http://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide. Equivalence of 388 TWh and 228 million barrels of oil equivalent from Kyle’s Converter, http://www.kylesconverter.com. 658
  2. Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1. Figure 30 based on the latest market data from Australia, Austria, Brazil, China, Germany, Israel, Mexico, Turkey and the United States, which represented 87% of cumulative installed capacity in operation in 2016. The other countries were projected according to their trend over the past two years, from idem.659
  3. Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1.660
  4. Ibid.661
  5. Data and Figure 31 based on the latest market data available at the time of publication for glazed and unglazed water collectors without concentrating collectors for countries that together represent 93% of the world total. Data from original country sources provided to REN21 as follows: David Ferrari, Sustainability Victoria, Melbourne, Australia; Werner Weiss, AEE INTEC, Vienna, Austria; Marcelo Mesquita, ABRASOL, São Paulo, Brazil; Hongzhi Cheng, Shandong SunVision Management Consulting, Dezhou, China; Marco Tepper, BSW Solar, Berlin, Germany; Edwige Porcheyre, Enerplan, La Ciotat, France; Costas Travasaros, Greek Solar Industry Association (EBHE), Piraeus, Greece; Jaideep Malaviya, Solar Thermal Federation of India (STFI), Pune, India; Eli Shilton, Elsol, Kohar-yair, Israel; Federico Musazzi, ANIMA, the Federation of Italian Associations in the Mechanical and Engineering Industries, Milan, Italy; Kumiko Saito, Solar System Development Association, Tokyo, Japan; Daniel Garcia, Solar Thermal Manufacturers Organisation (FAMERAC), Mexico City, Mexico; Janusz Staroscik, Association of Manufacturers and Importers of Heating Appliances (SPIUG), Warsaw, Poland; Karin Kritzinger, Centre for Renewable and Sustainable Energy Studies, University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch, South Africa; Pascual Polo, Spanish Solar Thermal Association (ASIT), Madrid, Spain; David Stickelberger, Swissolar, Zurich, Switzerland; Kung-Ming Chung, Energy Research Center of the National Cheng Kung University, Tainan City, Chinese Taipei; Abdelkader Baccouche, ANME, Tunis, Tunisia; Turkey from Kutay Ülke, Bural Heating, Kayseri, Turkey, and from Krystyna Dawson, BSRIA, Berkshire, United Kingdom; Les Nelson, Solar Heating & Cooling Programs at the International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO), Ontario, California, all personal communications with REN21, February-April 2018. The additions for Australia are preliminary, and the share of vacuum tube collectors within the new glazed collector area was assumed to be 10% as in 2016. China and world data reflect an assumption that systems have a lifetime of 10 years in China, 14 years in Turkey, 20 years in Germany and 25 years in all other countries.662
  6. Ibid.663
  7. Ibid.664
  8. Ibid.665
  9. Bärbel Epp, “CSTIF embarks on a journey of innovation and quality”, solarthermalworld, 25 January 2018, http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/cstif-embarks-journey-innovation-and-quality. 666
  10. According to a preliminary market assessment, 975,000 m2 of flat plate collectors and 950,000 m2 of vacuum tube collectors were newly installed in 2017, from Kutay Ülke, Bural Heating, Kayseri, Turkey, personal communication with REN21, March 2018.667
  11. Epp, op. cit. note 9. 668
  12. New flat plate collector area increased to 4.22 GWth or 6.03 million m2, while the market for vacuum tube collectors decreased to 21.86 GWth or 31.23 million m2, from Bärbel Epp, “Flat plate collector sales in China reach a record 6 million m2 in 2017”, solarthermalworld, 10 March 2018, http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/flat-plate-collector-sales-china-reach-record-6-million-m2-2017. 669
  13. Ibid. 670
  14. Epp, op. cit. note 9. 671
  15. Eddy Cheng, Jiangsu Sunrain Solar Energy Co. Ltd., Lianyungang, China, personal communication with REN21, March 2018; Sunny Zhao, Fivestar Solar Energy, Dongguan, China, personal communication with REN21, March 2018; Ouyang Cheng, Vicot Solar Technology Co., Ltd., Dezhou, China, personal communication with REN21, March 2018.672
  16. Li Xinju and Pang Guojun, “China Solar Thermal Utilization Industry Operational Status Report” (July to December 2017), obtained from Hongzhi Cheng, Shandong SunVision Management Consulting, Dezhou, China, personal communication with REN21, March 2018.673
  17. Ülke, op. cit. note 10.674
  18. Ibid.675
  19. Krystyna Dawson, BSRIA, Berkshire, United Kingdom, personal communication with REN21, March 2018.676
  20. Kenan Kus, “Solar Thermals – Turkey”, published market report from BSRIA, April 2017.677
  21. Ülke, op. cit. note 10.678
  22. Kus, op. cit. note 20.679
  23. Market figures for 2016 and 2017 from Jaideep Malaviya, STFI, Pune, India, personal communication with REN21, March 2018. Note that year-to-year comparisons before 2016 are inexact because new installation figures in 2016 and 2017 related to the calendar year, whereas earlier data referred to the Indian fiscal year (March to April), from Bärbel Epp, “India: Flat plates up, concentrating technologies down”, solarthermalworld, 1 March 2018, http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/india-flat-plates-concentrating-technologies-down. 680
  24. Epp, op. cit. note 23. 681
  25. Jaideep Malaviya, “Indian manufacturers face strong competition from Chinese imports”, solarthermalworld, 20 February 2018, http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/indian-manufacturers-face-strong-competition-chinese-imports. 682
  26. Epp, op. cit. note 23.683
  27. Ibid. 684
  28. Rafael Campos, ABRASOL, Brazil, personal communication with REN21, March 2018.685
  29. Ibid.686
  30. Figures for 2016 and 2017 from ABRASOL, Brazil; figures for 2015 and before from DASOL, Solar Heating Department of the Brazilian Association of Refrigeration, Air Conditioning, Ventilation and Heating, ABRAVA, Brazil, personal communication with REN21, March 2018.687
  31. Figures for 2017 from Campos, op. cit. note 28.688
  32. Les Nelson, Solar Heating & Cooling Programs at IAPMO, Ontario, CA, personal communication with REN21, February 2018.689
  33. Ibid.690
  34. Ibid.691
  35. See sources in endnote 5.692
  36. Bärbel Epp, “USA: Concerted actions in California and New York”, solarthermalworld, 23 June 2017, http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/usa-concerted-actions-california-and-new-york. 693
  37. Nelson, op. cit. note 32.694
  38. Marco Tepper, BSW Solar, Berlin, Germany, personal communication with REN21, February and March 2018.695
  39. Bärbel Epp, “Germany: Solar thermal loses out to other renewables”, solarthermalworld, 20 February 2018, http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/germany-solar-thermal-loses-out-other-renewables. 696
  40. Ibid.697
  41. Ibid. 698
  42. Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1.699
  43. Data and Figure 32 based on op. cit. note 1, first two sources. 700
  44. Riccardo Battisti, “District heating shows lower total socio-economic cost in future energy system”, solarthermalworld, 31 January 2018, http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/district-heating-shows-lower-total-socio-economic-cost-future-energy-system; Bärbel Epp, “IRENA: Renewable district heating and cooling roadmap to 2030”, solarthermalworld, 27 April 2017, http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/irena-renewable-district-heating-and-cooling-roadmap-2030; China from Epp, op. cit. note 9; Poland from Bärbel Epp, “Solar to replace coal in Polish district heating networks”, solarthermalworld, 7 February 2018, http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/solar-replace-coal-polish-district-heating-networks. 701
  45. Data and Figure 33 based on endnote 1, first two sources.702
  46. Ibid.703
  47. Ibid. 704
  48. Bärbel Epp, “Second winter for 75,000 m2 SDH heating system in Inner Mongolia”, solarthermalworld, 11 April 2018, http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/second-winter-75000-m2-sdh-heating-system-inner-mongolia. 705
  49. Figures for 2017 from Daniel Trier, PlanEnergi, Skørping, Denmark, personal communication with REN21, February 2018.706
  50. Bärbel Epp, “Denmark: Solar district heating capacity nearly doubles in 2016”, solarthermalworld, 25 April 2018, http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/denmark-solar-district-heating-capacity-nearly-doubles-2016. 707
  51. Ibid. 708
  52. Jan-Olof Dalenbäck, Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg, Sweden, personal communication with REN21, February and March 2018.709
  53. December 15 saw the inauguration of a 2,340 m2 collector field by German manufacturer KBB Kollektorbau that has since been feeding into the biomass district heating network of Châteaubriant, a town in western France, from Bärbel Epp, “Project partners guarantee SDH yield”, solarthermalworld, 21 December 2017, http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/project-partners-guarantee-sdh-yield. 710
  54. Bärbel Epp, “Germany: Renewable district heating grants”, solarthermalworld, 27 October 2017, http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/germany-renewable-district-heating-grants; 39 applications for feasibility studies were submitted by March 2018, from Reiner Warsinski, Office for Economic Affairs and Export Control of Germany, personal communication with REN21, April 2018.711
  55. Epp, op. cit. note 54.712
  56. Riccardo Battisti, “Slovenia: On the path to renewable district heating”, solarthermalworld, 2 October 2017, http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/slovenia-path-renewable-district-heating.713
  57. Bärbel Epp, “Solar to replace coal in Polish district heating networks”, solarthermalworld, 7 February 2018, http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/solar-replace-coal-polish-district-heating-networks. 714
  58. Bärbel Epp, “Kyrgyzstan’s capital sees 0.5 MW SDH plant being built”, solarthermalworld, 19 December 2017, http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/kyrgyzstans-capital-sees-05-mw-sdh-plant-being-built. 715
  59. Bärbel Epp, “Australia: Think big, think solar”, solarthermalworld, 1 December 2017, http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/australia-think-big-think-solar. 716
  60. Bärbel Epp, “Solar district heating on the roof of the world”, solarthermalworld, 27 February 2018, http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/solar-district-heating-roof-world. 717
  61. Bärbel Epp, “Tibet’s highly subsidised solar heating market”, solarthermalworld, 2 April 2018, http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/tibets-highly-subsidised-solar-heating-market; Epp, op. cit. note 60. 718
  62. Bärbel Epp, “Solar industrial heat market – a 2017 survey”, solarthermalworld, 26 April 2018, http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/solar-industrial-heat-market-2017-survey. Installations of concentrating collector technologies (linear Fresnel, parabolic trough and dish) were reported by aperture area idem, and converted into solar thermal capacity using the internationally accepted convention, 1 million m2 = 0.7 GWth.719
  63. Ibid. 720
  64. “Petroleum Development Oman and GlassPoint inaugurate ‘Miraah solar plant’”, Albawaba.com, 14 February 2018, https://www.albawaba.com/business/pr/petroleum-development-oman-and-glasspoint-inugurate-miraah-solar-plant-1088536.721
  65. Ibid.722
  66. Ibid.723
  67. Riccardo Battisti, “Italy: 10,000 m2 ORC-connected Fresnel and parabolic trough fields”, solarthermalworld, 19 September 2017, http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/italy-10000-m2-orc-connected-fresnel-and-parabolic-trough-fields. 724
  68. Hernandez Castañeda, Inventive Power, Zapopan, Mexico, personal communication with REN21, March 2018.725
  69. Epp, op. cit. note 62. 726
  70. Malaviya, op. cit. note 23.727
  71. Jaideep Malaviya, “Financial support for concentrating solar systems extended until 2020”, solarthermalworld, 14 March 2018, http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/financial-support-concentrating-solar-systems-extended-until-2020. 728
  72. Epp, op. cit. note 62. 729
  73. The Department of Sericulture has been promoting the technology among silk producers by providing a 75% subsidy for any reeling unit partly heated by solar energy, from Jaideep Malaviya, “1,500 preheating systems in India’s silk region”, solarthermalworld, 23 January 2018, http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/1500-preheating-systems-indias-silk-region; Epp. op. cit. note 62. 730
  74. Mexico from Ángel Mejía Santiago, Inventive Power, Zapopan, Mexico, personal communication with REN21, July 2016; Oman based on Epp, op. cit. note 62; China based on Epp, op. cit. note 9.731
  75. Bärbel Epp, “China: Solar process heat and space heating and cooling rack up market shares”, solarthermalworld, 19 April 2017, http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/china-solar-process-heat-and-space-heating-and-cooling-rack-market-shares.732
  76. Epp, op. cit. note 62.733
  77. Ibid. 734
  78. Ibid. 735
  79. Bärbel Epp, “Solar cooling demand on the rise in Italy, Spain and the Middle East”, solarthermalworld, 27 April 2018, http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/solar-cooling-demand-rise-italy-spain-and-middle-east. 736
  80. Gregor Feid, Fahrenheit, Halle, Germany, personal communication with REN21, March 2018.737
  81. The German chiller manufacturer Fahrenheit installed a 10 kW sorption chiller in 2017 at a waste heat recovery company in Dubai and announced the construction of a second demonstration plant in a Saudi Arabian research institute for 2018, from Bashir Kanawati, Fahrenheit, Halle, Germany, personal communication with REN21, March 2018; TVP Solar, a Swiss manufacturer of evacuated flat plate collectors, commissioned a solar thermal cooling system at the headquarters of a logistic company in Kuwait with a 234 m2 collector field and a 34 TR (refrigeration ton) chiller in 2017, from Jonathan Koifman, TVP Solar, Satigny, Switzerland, personal communication with REN21, March 2018.738
  82. The volume of absorption chillers installed in Asia-Pacific (including APAC (Asia Pacific) but not Australia, India and Middle East) accounted for 71% of the total world market in 2016. This trend continued in 2017, from Dawson, op. cit. note 19.739
  83. Jaideep Malaviya, “First cooling installation on Indian government building”, solarthermalworld, 10 April 2018, http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/first-cooling-installation-indian-government-building; Bärbel Epp, “IKEA stores begin to switch over to solar heating and cooling”, solarthermalworld, 13 February 2018, http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/ikea-stores-begin-switch-over-solar-heating-and-cooling. 740
  84. Epp, op. cit. note 75.741
  85. A solar thermal air conditioning system planned in Turpan with 40,000 m2 of flat plate solar collectors working with lithium bromide absorption chillers cooling the demonstration building (mainly public buildings) with a floor space of 200,000 m2, from Zheng Ruicheng, Institute of Built Environment and Energy Efficiency of the China Academy of Building Research, Beijing, China, personal communication with REN21, March 2018; 10,000 m2 of collector area should heat and cool the Xiaoya office and industry complex in Jinan, the capitol of Shandong Province, from QingLong Zhang, Sanqiaoneng New Energy, Jinan, China, personal communication with REN21, March 2018.742
  86. Monitoring results were published for a 35 kW absorption chiller with 240 m2 of flat plate collectors in a building containing offices and flats in Montpellier, southern France, that increased the annual solar fraction of the domestic hot water production to 70% and prevented the solar system from overheating in summer, from Bärbel Epp, “Solar cooling increases annual solar fraction”, solarthermalworld, 24 February 2018, http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/solar-cooling-increases-annual-solar-fraction. 743
  87. Cheng, op. cit. note 16.744
  88. Bärbel Epp, “World’s largest flat plate collector manufacturers in 2017”, solarthermalworld, 19 March 2018, http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/worlds-largest-flat-plate-collector-manufacturers-2017. 745
  89. Bärbel Epp, “Austria: Haier now holds 51% stake in Greenonetec”, solarthermalworld, 15 June 2017, http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/austria-haier-now-holds-51-stake-greenonetec. 746
  90. Epp, op. cit. note 12. 747
  91. Zhang, op. cit. note 85.748
  92. Epp, op. cit. note 12; Cheng, op. cit. note 15.749
  93. Epp, op. cit. note 88.750
  94. Ibid. 751
  95. Ibid.752
  96. Ibid.753
  97. Bärbel Epp, “Sonnenkraft, Holter and Tisun – the changing face of Austria’s industry”, solarthermalworld, 26 February 2018, http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/sonnenkraft-holter-and-tisun-changing-face-austrias-industry. 754
  98. Among the world’s 20 largest flat plate collector manufacturers, 7 were very satisfied or satisfied with their sales levels in 2017, and only 4 were disappointed or very disappointed. The majority of these companies reached a sales volume as expected, as per the survey carried out by solrico, Germany in January and February 2018 of the 20 largest flat plate collector manufacturers worldwide related to collector area produced in 2017, from Epp, op. cit. note 88.755
  99. Epp, op. cit. note 88. 756
  100. Costas Travasaros, Greek Solar Industry Association (EBHE), Piräus, Greece, personal communication with REN21, January 2017.757
  101. Ibid.758
  102. Alejandro Diego Rosell, “Spain’s 2017 figures show increase in collector production despite declining market”, solarthermalworld, 6 March 2018, http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/spains-2017-figures-show-increase-collector-production-despite-declining-market. 759
  103. With the revenue from this sale, Absolicon started automating and upgrading production at its headquarters in Härnösand, Sweden, from Joakim Byström, Absolicon Solar Collector, Härnösand, Sweden, personal communication with REN21, March and April 2018.760
  104. Eugene Gerden, "Moldova: Vacuum tube collector assembly line inaugurated", solarthermalworld, 22 September 2017, http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/moldova-vacuum-tube-collector-assembly-line-inaugurated. 761
  105. Bärbel Epp, “State-of-the-art collector production in Uzbekistan”, solarthermalworld, 9 February 2018, http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/state-art-collector-production-uzbekistan. 762
  106. Epp, op. cit. note 88.763
  107. Ibid. 764
  108. Two of three major thermal chiller system manufacturers and suppliers in Germany use not solar, but waste heat, as the driving source for the chillers, from Bärbel Epp, solrico, Germany, personal communication with REN21, March 2018; Romina Bayer, Invensor GmbH, Germany, personal communication with REN21, March 2018.765
  109. For 2017, Yazaki’s European sales partner Maya (Italy) reported the construction of six new solar thermal cooling systems in Italy and three units in Spain; all were installed in commercial buildings for co-production of hot water and/or space heating, from Bärbel Epp, “Solar cooling demand on the rise in Italy, Spain and the Middle East”, solarthermalworld, 27 April 2018, http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/solar-cooling-demand-rise-italy-spain-and-middle-east.766

Wind Power

  1. The wind industry added a gross of 52,492 MW for a total of 539,123 MW (net of decommissioning), about 3.8% below 2016 additions, from Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC), Global Wind Report – Annual Market Update 2017 (Brussels: April 2018), p. 4, http://files.gwec.net/files/GWR2017.pdf; additions were up slightly relative to 2016, to 51,402 MW for a total of 539,291 MW, from World Wind Energy Association (WWEA), “Wind power capacity reaches 539 GW, 52,6 GW added in 2017”, press release (Bonn: 12 February 2018), http://www.wwindea.org/2017-statistics/; 53,531 MW was added for a total of 540,997 MW, from FTI Consulting, Global Wind Market Update – Demand & Supply 2017, Part Two – Demand Side Analysis (London: April 2018), p. 47, https://fti-intelligencestore.com/index.php?route=download/main&download_id=160; and 51,644 MW was added (connected capacity) for a total of 539,256 GW, from EurObserv’ER, Wind Energy Barometer (Paris: February 2018), p. 3, https://www.eurobserv-er.org/wind-energy-barometer-2018/. 767
  2. Increase and cumulative capacity based on data from all sources in endnote 1. Figure 34 based on historical data from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 20; data for 2017 from sources in this section. Note that annual additions reported in this section are generally gross additions; the net increase in total capacity can be lower, reflecting decommissioning. However, relatively few of the countries that installed wind power capacity during the year decommissioned previously existing capacity. Year-end totals account for decommissioned capacity.768
  3. Steve Sawyer, GWEC, personal communication with Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21), 6 March 2018, and GWEC, op. cit. note 1. China also from FTI Intelligence, “Preliminary turbine OEM rankings for 2017”, 26 February 2018, https://fti-intelligencestore.com/index.php?route=download/main&download_id=157, and from “Vestas keeps lead in onshore wind, Siemens Gamesa narrows gap”, Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF), 26 February 2018, https://about.bnef.com/blog/vestas-keeps-lead-in-onshore-wind-siemens-gamesa-narrows-gap/. Records were set in Belgium, Croatia, France, Germany, Ireland and the United Kingdom in Europe, and in India, as well as in the offshore sector, from GWEC, op. cit. note 1.769
  4. Figure of 90 countries from Shruti Shukla, GWEC, personal communication with REN21, 13 April 2017, and confirmed with same source in March 2018. Figure of 30 countries from Jean-Daniel Pitteloud, WWEA, personal communication with REN21, 4 April 2018, and from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 18.770
  5. GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 25.771
  6. Steve Sawyer, GWEC, personal communications with REN21, 24 January and 20 April 2018; WWEA, op. cit. note 1; Feng Zhao, FTI Consulting, Copenhagen, personal communication with REN21, 19 April 2018; WindEurope, Brussels, personal communication with REN21, 29 March 2018; EurObserv’ER, op. cit. note 1. 772
  7. Sawyer, op. cit. note 3; Tom Randall, “Wind and solar are crushing fossil fuels”, Bloomberg, 6 April 2017, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-04-06/wind-and-solar-are-crushing-fossil-fuels; “Wind power leading the charge to drive out fossils”, GWEC, 15 June 2017, http://gwec.net/wind-power-leading-the-charge-to-drive-out-fossils/. 773
  8. Steve Sawyer, GWEC, personal communication with REN21, 14 February 2018; Vestas, “Annual Report 2017 – Summary”, https://www.vestas.com/en/investor/financial_reports/2017/q4#!intro, viewed 18 March 2018; Frankfurt School-UNEP Collaborating Centre for Climate & Sustainable Energy Finance (FS-UNEP) and BNEF, Global Trends in Renewable Energy Investment 2018 (Frankfurt: April 2018), p. 18, http://fs-unep-centre.org/sites/default/files/publications/gtr2018v2.pdf. 774
  9. Based on data from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 17. GSR data are based on regional groupings that include Turkey as part of Asia, rather than Europe, and Mexico as part of Central America or Latin America, rather than North America.775
  10. GWEC, op. cit. note 1; WWEA, op. cit. note 1. 776
  11. Based on data from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, and WindEurope, Wind in Power 2017: Annual Combined Onshore and Offshore Wind Statistics (Brussels: February 2018), p. 9, https://windeurope.org/wp-content/uploads/files/about-wind/statistics/WindEurope-Annual-Statistics-2017.pdf. Figure 35 based on country-specific data and sources provided throughout this section (or See endnote for Reference Table R21).777
  12. Jean-Daniel Pitteloud, WWEA, personal communication with REN21, April 2018. Denmark had an estimated 960.3 watts (W) per 1,000 inhabitants, followed by Ireland (704.7 W), Sweden (672.4 W), Germany (671.5 W) and Portugal (515.3 W), from EurObserv’ER, op. cit. note 1, p. 13. 778
  13. China added 19.66 GW in 2017 for a year-end total of 188.39 GW, from Chinese Wind Energy Association (CWEA), “2017 China wind power lifting capacity statistics presentation”, 3 April 2018 (using Google Translate), provided by Liming Qiao, GWEC, personal communication with REN21, 2 May 2018. CWEA data are issued jointly by members of the Wind Energy Professional Committee of the Chinese Association of Renewable Energy, the Wind Machinery Branch of the China Agricultural Machinery Industry Association and the National Renewable Energy Center, and include all capacity that has been fully installed (but is not necessarily grid-connected) as reported by companies involved in project construction. China added 19.52 GW in 2017, from China Electricity Council (CEC), “CEC releases 2016-2018 annual electricity supply and demand situation analysis and forecast report’”, 1 February 2018, http://www.cec.org.cn/guihuayutongji/gongzuodongtai/2018-02-01/177584.html (using Google Translate); China added 19,660 MW for a total of 188,392 MW, from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 17; added 19,660 MW for a total of 188,390 MW, from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 1, p. 51; and added 19,000 MW for a total of 187,730 MW, from WWEA, op. cit. note 1. 779
  14. Steve Sawyer, GWEC, personal communication with REN21, 20 April 2018; Zhao, op. cit. note 6; EurObserv’ER, op. cit. note 1, pp. 4-5.780
  15. Based on additions of 15.03 GW for total of 164 GW in operation, from China National Energy Board, cited in China National Energy Administration (NEA), “Wind grid operation in 2017”, 1 February 2018, http://www.nea.gov.cn/2018-02/01/c_136942234.htm (using Google Translate). Differences in statistics result, at least in part, from differences in what is counted and when. Most of the capacity added in 2017 was feeding the grid by year’s end. The difference in statistics among Chinese organisations and agencies is because they count different things: installed capacity refers to capacity that is constructed and usually has wires carrying electricity from the turbines to a substation; capacity qualifies as grid-connected (i.e., included in CEC statistics) once certification is granted and operators begin receiving the FIT premium payment, which can take weeks or even months. It is no longer the case that thousands of turbines stand idle awaiting connection in China because projects must be permitted in order to start construction; however, there is still often a several-month lag from when turbines are wire-connected to the substation until the process of certification and payment of the FIT premium is complete, from Sawyer, op. cit. note 14. No Chinese statistics provide actual grid-connected capacity, and discrepancies among available statistics can be quite large. Data from CWEA do include some capacity that is not 100% grid-connected by year’s end, but are believed to most closely reflect the status of the market in China, from Liming Qiao, GWEC, personal communication with REN21, 2 May 2018. About 12% of installed capacity (24 GW) was not connected at year’s end, from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 1, p. 22. 781
  16. Locations of installations based on data from NEA, “Wind power grid operation in 2016”, 26 January 2017, http://www.nea.gov.cn/2017-01/26/c_136014615.htm (using Google Translate); NEA, op. cit. note 15; China Energy Portal, “2016 wind power installations and production by province”, 26 January 2017, https://chinaenergyportal.org/en/2016-wind-power-installations-production-province/; China Energy Portal, “2017 wind power installations and production by province”, 1 February 2018, https://chinaenergyportal.org/en/2017-wind-power-installations-production-province/; GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 40. The restrictions were on Heilongjiang, Jilin and Gansu provinces, and on Inner Mongolia, Ningxia Hui and Xinjiang Uygar autonomous regions, from “New wind power projects banned in six regions due to wastage”, China Daily, 23 February 2017, http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2017-02/23/content_28316786.htm. Low wind-speed regions from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 1, p. 20.782
  17. Top provinces from China Energy Portal, “2017 wind power installations…”, op. cit. note 16; close to demand centres based on Yiyi Zhou and Sophie Lu, China’s Renewables Curtailment and Coal Assets Risk Map (London: BNEF, 25 October 2017), p. 10, https://data.bloomberglp.com/bnef/sites/14/2017/10/Chinas-Renewable-Curtailment-and-Coal-Assets-Risk-Map-FINAL_2.pdf. 783
  18. National curtailment data for 2017 from China National Energy Board, op. cit. note 15. National curtailment was 49.7 TWh in 2016, from NEA and CEC, provided by Shi Pengfei, CWEA, personal communication with REN21, 21 March 2017, and from NEA, op. cit. note 16.784
  19. Concentrated from NEA, “National Energy Administration press conference introduces related energy situation, etc.”, 24 January 2018, http://www.nea.gov.cn/2018-01/24/c_136921015.htm (using Google Translate). The highest rates of curtailment in 2017 were seen in Gansu (33%), Xinjiang (29%), Jilin (21%), Inner Mongolia (15%) and Heilongjiang (14%), from China National Energy Board, op. cit. note 15. National curtailment data for 2016 from NEA and CEC, provided by Shi, op. cit. note 18, and from NEA, op. cit. note 16. The highest rates of curtailment in 2016 were seen in Gansu (43%), Xinjiang (38%), Jilin (30%) and Inner Mongolia (21%), from NEA, op. cit. note 16. Policies from, for example, Liu Yuanyuan, “China’s Xinjiang region cuts wind and solar curtailment rate by almost 30 percent”, Renewable Energy World, 27 December 2017, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2017/12/china-s-xinjiang-region-cuts-wind-and-solar-curtailment-rate-by-almost-30-percent.html, and GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 40. 785
  20. Share of output from China National Energy Board, op. cit. note 15. Wind generation was 305.7 TWh in 2017, from idem. This was up from 241 TWh and 4% of generation in 2016, from NEA, op. cit. note 16; and 186.3 TWh and 3.3% in 2015, from China National Energy Board, cited by NEA, “2015 Wind Power Industry Development”, 2 February 2016, www.nea.gov.cn/2016-02/02/c_135066586.htm (using Google Translate). 786
  21. India added approximately 4,147.56 MW of wind power capacity in 2017 for a year-end total of 32,848.46 MW, based on Government of India, Ministry of Power, Central Electricity Authority (CEA), All India Installed Capacity, Monthly Report January 2018 (New Delhi: 2018), Table: “All India installed capacity (in MW) of power stations (as on 31.01.2018) (Utilities)”, http://www.cea.nic.in/reports/monthly/installedcapacity/2018/installed_capacity-01.pdf; Government of India, Ministry of Power, CEA, All India Installed Capacity, Monthly Report January 2017 (New Delhi: 2017), Table: “All India installed capacity (in MW) of power stations (as on 31.01.2017) (Utilities)”, http://www.cea.nic.in/reports/monthly/installedcapacity/2017/installed_capacity-01.pdf. India added 4,148 MW for a total of 32,848 MW, from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 49; and added 4,148 MW for a total of 32,846 MW, from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 1, p. 51.787
  22. FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 1, p. 20; “India wind power market report 2017 – research and markets”, Business Wire, 12 December 2017, https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20171212006200/en/India-Wind-Power-Market-Report-2017--. 788
  23. “India wind power…”, op. cit. note 22; Sushma U N, “After the storm of 2017, India’s wind power sector is settling down”, Quartz India, 6 April 2018, https://qz.com/1245556/indias-wind-power-sector-had-a-terrible-year-in-2017-can-it-turn-around/; Ann Josey et al., “India’s electricity companies have surplus power – and that’s a big challenge”, Scroll.in, 30 May 2017, https://scroll.in/article/838000/indias-electricity-companies-have-surplus-power-and-thats-a-big-challenge; Government of India, Ministry of Power, “Power sector at a glance – All India: 3.0 power supply position”, https://powermin.nic.in/en/content/power-sector-glance-all-india#, viewed 1 April 2018; Bhanvi Arora, “India’s low tariffs hurt wind turbine makers”, Renewable Energy World, 14 September 2017, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2017/09/india-s-low-tariffs-hurt-wind-turbine-makers.html; Steve Sawyer, GWEC, personal communication with REN21, April 2018. By year’s end, India had little need for new power capacity in the short-term: over the period 2009-2017, India’s significant power supply deficits were dramatically reduced, from Bridge to India, “2017, a year of some ‘highs’ but many ‘lows’”, 20 December 2017, http://www.bridgetoindia.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Weekly-2017-a-year-of-some-highs-but-many-lows.pdf. 789
  24. Bridge to India, op. cit. note 23; Arora, op. cit. note 23; Sushma, op. cit. note 23. 790
  25. Turkey added 1,387.75 MW in 2016 for a total of 6,106.05 MW, and added 766.05 MW in 2017 for a total of 6,872.1 MW, from Turkish Wind Energy Association, Türkiye Rüzgar Enerjisi Istatistik Özet Raporu (Ankara: January 2018), p. 4, http://www.tureb.com.tr/files/tureb_sayfa/duyurular/2018/02_subat/turkiye_ruzgar_enerjisi_istatistik_ozet_raporu.pdf; added 766 MW in 2017 for a total of 6,857 MW, from WindEurope, op. cit. note 11, p. 9; added 766 MW for a total of 6,871 MW, from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 1, p. 50; added 900 MW for a total of 6,981 MW, from WWEA, op. cit. note 1.791
  26. “2,130 MW wind power plants to be established in 32 locations across Turkey”, Daily Sabah, 25 December 2017, https://www.dailysabah.com/energy/2017/12/26/2130-mw-wind-power-plants-to-be-established-in-32-locations-across-turkey.792
  27. Pakistan added 199 MW for a total of 789 MW, Japan added 177 MW for a total of 3,400 MW, and the Republic of Korea added 106 MW for a total of 1,136 GW, from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 17. In addition, Mongolia added 50 MW for a total of 100 MW, Vietnam added 38 MW for a total of 197 MW, Thailand added 24 MW for a total of 633 MW, Chinese Taipei added 10 MW for a total of 692 MW, and all Asia ended 2017 with approximately 235,599 MW (including Turkey), from idem. Pakistan added 200 MW for a total of 909 MW, Japan added 177 MW for a total of 3,395 MW, the Republic of Korea added 106 MW for a total of 1,112 MW, the Philippines added 40 MW for a total of 499 MW, Chinese Taipei added 13 MW for a total of 690 MW, and Thailand added 98 MW for a total of 679 MW, from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 1, pp. 51, 54.793
  28. The EU installed 15,638 MW (14,998 MWnet), including 12,484 MW onshore and 3,154 MW offshore, for a year-end total of 168,729 MW (153 GW onshore and 15.8 GW offshore), based on data from WindEurope, op. cit. note 11, pp. 7, 9. The EU installed 14,750 MW, decommissioned 605 MW, and ended 2017 with a total of 168,993 MW, from EurObserv’ER, op. cit. note 1, p. 3.794
  29. Change in regulatory framework from WindEurope, op. cit. note 6; EurObserv’ER, op. cit. note 1, p. 2; “Europe powered by wind: Germany added 42% of EU’s 2017 wind capacity”, EU Bulletin, 15 February 2018, http://www.eubulletin.com/8183-europe-powered-by-wind-germany-added-42-of-eus-2017-wind-capacity.html; David Weston, “Race to beat auctions sees European capacity grow 20%”, Windpower Monthly, 13 February 2018, https://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1456946/race-beat-auctions-sees-european-capacity-grow-20. See also Craig Richard, “Danish installations surge ahead of support closure”, Windpower Monthly, 15 March 2018, https://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1459597/danish-installations-surge-ahead-support-closure. The EU installed 12,484 MW onshore and 3,154 MW offshore, from WindEurope, op. cit. note 11, pp. 7, 9. For more on the European Commission (EC) guidelines, see EC, “Communication from the Commission: Guidelines on State aid for environmental protection and energy 2014-2010”, Official Journal of the European Union, 28 June 2014, Section 3.3, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52014XC0628%2801%29. 795
  30. WindEurope, op. cit. note 11, pp. 7, 9, 15; 12% in 2012 from WindEurope, op. cit. note 6.796
  31. WindEurope, op. cit. note 11, pp. 7, 9.797
  32. Estimated output in 2017 was 336 TWh and share of EU consumption was 11.6%, from WindEurope, op. cit. note 11, pp. 7, 21, 22; estimated output in 2016 was 300 TWh, from WindEurope, Wind in Power – 2016 European Statistics (Brussels: February 2017), p. 7. 798
  33. WindEurope, op. cit. note 11, pp. 7, 9. 799
  34. Ibid., p. 19. Ireland was followed by Germany and the United Kingdom.800
  35. Finland added 535 MW for a total of 2,071 MW, from WindEurope, op. cit. note 11, pp. 7, 9, 10, and from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 17; last projects under FIT, and Finland added 516 MW for a total of 2,040 MW, all from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 1, pp. 15, 50. 801
  36. WindEurope, op. cit. note 11, pp. 7, 9. In 2016, 20 countries added capacity from idem, pp. 7, 9; also in 2016, six countries accounted for 79.2% of the region’s installations in 2016, from WindEurope, op. cit. note 32, p. 10. Only 15 EU countries added capacity during 2017, from EurObserv’ER, op. cit. note 1, p. 7.802
  37. Germany added 5,333.53 MW onshore and 1,247 offshore for a gross total of 6,580.53 MW added, and a net total (considering 467.27 MW of decommissioned capacity onshore) of 6,113.26 MW added, all from WindEurope, personal communication with REN21, 30 April 2018; year-end total capacity of 56,132 MW, from WindEurope, op. cit. note 11, p. 9; year-end total offshore capacity of 5,355 MW, from WindEurope, Offshore Wind in Europe – Key Trends and Statistics 2017 (Brussels: February 2018), p. 18, https://windeurope.org/wp-content/uploads/files/about-wind/statistics/WindEurope-Annual-Offshore-Statistics-2017.pdf; year-end onshore total capacity of 50,777 MW based on total capacity of 56,132 MW less offshore capacity of 5,355 MW. WindEurope reports net capacity connected to the grid by 31 December 2017, from WindEurope, personal communication with REN21, 30 April 2018. Data from other sources vary considerably due to differences in methodology. For example, Germany’s gross additions were 5,484 MW onshore and 1,275 MW offshore for a total of 6,762 MW, from Arbeitsgruppe Erneuerbare Energien-Statistik (AGEE-Stat) and Umwelt Bundesamt, Erneuerbare Energien in Deutschland, Daten zur Entwicklung im Jahr 2017 (Dessau-Roßlau: March 2018), pp. 9-10, https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/sites/default/files/medien/376/publikationen/180315_uba_hg_eeinzahlen_2018_bf.pdf; and net additions were 5,015 MW onshore and 1,275 MW offshore for a total of 6,290 MW added in 2017, and year-end cumulative of 50,469 MW onshore plus 5,407 MW offshore, for a combined total of 55,876 MW, all from Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Energie (BMWi), Zeitreihen zur Entwicklung der erneuerbaren Energien in Deutschland unter Verwendung von Daten der Arbeitsgruppe Erneuerbare Energien-Statistik (AGEE-Stat) (Stand: Februar 2018) (Berlin: March 2018), p. 7, https://www.erneuerbare-energien.de/EE/Navigation/DE/Service/Erneuerbare_Energien_in_Zahlen/Zeitreihen/zeitreihen.html. Germany added a net of 6,145.26 MW in 2017, based on net additions onshore of 4,866.26 MW (5,333.53 MW gross additions; 951.77 MW repowering; 467.27 MW dismantled), plus offshore additions of 1,250.3 MW, plus modifications to existing offshore turbines for additional capacity of 28.8 MW, for a cumulative year-end total of 56,163 MW (50,776.93 MW onshore and 5,387 MW offshore), from Deutsche Windguard, Status of Offshore Wind Energy Development in Germany (Varel: undated), http://www.windguard.com/year-2017.html, and from Deutsche Windguard, Status of Land-based Wind Energy Development in Germany (Varel: undated), http://www.windguard.com/year-2017.html. 803
  38. WindEurope, op. cit. note 11, p. 18; EurObserv’ER, op. cit. note 1, p. 10. EC requirements from EC, op. cit. note 29. 804
  39. Increase in capacity based on data for end-2016 and end-2017, from WindEurope, op. cit. note 11, p. 9; increase in generation based on data for 2016 (79.9 TWh) and 2017 (106.6 TWh generated), from BMWi, op. cit. note 37, pp. 6, 7, 42, 43. Better wind conditions from AGEE-Stat and Umwelt Bundesamt, op. cit. note 37, p. 9. Figure of 19% based on Germany’s total net generation of 546.91 TWh and net wind power generation of 103.65 TWh, from Fraunhofer ISE, “Energy charts – annual electricity generation in Germany in 2017”, https://www.energy-charts.de/energy.htm?source=all-sources&period=annual&year=2017, updated 12 March 2018.805
  40. The United Kingdom added 4,270 MW (2,590 MW onshore and 1,680 MW offshore) for a total of 18,872 MW, from WindEurope, op. cit. note 11, pp. 9, 11. The country added a net of 3,619 MW for a total of 19,837 MW, from UK Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy, “Energy Trends: Renewables, Section 6”, p. 69, updated 12 April 2018, https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/energy-trends-section-6-renewables; added 4,270 MW for a total of 18,456 MW, from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 1, p. 50; added 3,340 MW for a total of 17,852 MW, from WWEA, op. cit. note 1. 806
  41. WindEurope, op. cit. note 11, p. 18. Cancellation was one year earlier than expected, from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 1, p. 15.807
  42. France added 1,694 MW for a total of 13,759 MW, from WindEurope, op. cit. note 11, p. 9; added 1,797 MW for a total of 13,559 MW, from Réseau de transport d’électricité (RTE), Panorama de L'Électricité Renouvelable en 2017 (Paris: 2018), p. 13, http://www.rte-france.com/sites/default/files/panorama_enr_2017.pdf; added 1,694 MW for total of 13,624 MW, from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 1, p. 50; added 1,695 MW for a total of 13,760, from WWEA, op. cit. note 1; and added 1,798 MW for a total of 13,559 MW, from EurObserv’ER, op. cit. note 1, p. 7. Record for second consecutive year from RTE, op. cit. this note.808
  43. Since 2013 from WindEurope, op. cit. note 6; FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 1, p. 15. 809
  44. Largest in four years, from WindEurope, op. cit. note 6. Spain added 96 MW for a total of 23,170 MW, from WindEurope, op. cit. note 11, p. 9, and from EurObserv’ER, op. cit. note 1, p. 7; added 96 MW for a total of 23,131 MW, from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 1, pp. 50, 59; added 6 MW for a total of 23,026 MW, from WWEA, op. cit. note 1. Spain held two auctions in 2017, with 4.1 GW going to onshore wind power and 3.9 GW to solar PV, from Pablo Del Río González, Instituto de Políticas y Bienes Públicos, Spain, personal communication with REN21, 8 April 2018.810
  45. FS-UNEP and BNEF, op. cit. note 8, p. 41. The commitment was to purchase most of the electricity from the 650 MW Markbygden Ett wind project over the 2021-2039 period, from idem.811
  46. Norway added 324 MW for a total of 1,162 MW, Ukraine added 68 MW for a total of 593 MW, and Serbia added 8 MW for a total of 18 MW, from WindEurope, op. cit. note 11, p. 9.812
  47. The 35 MW Russian wind farm is located near the city of Ulyanovsk, from “Russia’s first commercial-scale wind farm has been commissioned”, EV Wind, 15 January 2018, https://www.evwind.es/2018/01/15/russias-first-commercial-scale-wind-farm-has-been-commissioned/62378; Fortum, “Fortum adds 35 MW of wind power to the Russian power market”, press release (Espoo, Finland: 12 January 2018), https://www3.fortum.com/media/2018/01/fortum-adds-35-mw-wind-power-russian-power-market. The project was the first to result from a Russian tender in 2014, from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 1, p. 17. Russian tender from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 12.813
  48. The United States added 7,017 MW in 2017, from American Wind Energy Association (AWEA), AWEA U.S. Wind Industry Annual Market Report Year Ending 2017 (Washington, DC: April 2018); and added 8,203 MW in 2016, from AWEA, AWEA U.S. Wind Industry Annual Market Report Year Ending 2016 (Washington, DC: April 2017). Down for second consecutive year from Jim Efstathiou with Brian Eckhouse, “The U.S. added wind power at a leisurely pace in 2017”, Bloomberg, 30 January 2018, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-01-30/wind-additions-dip-in-2017-given-tax-credit-has-further-to-run.814
  49. AWEA, U.S. Wind Industry Fourth Quarter 2017 Market Update (Washington, DC: 25 January 2018), http://awea.files.cms-plus.com/FileDownloads/pdfs/4Q%202017%20AWEA%20Market%20Report%20Public%20Version.pdf; Efstathiou with Eckhouse, op. cit. note 48. For more on partial repowering see, for example, Eric Lantz et al., Wind Power Project Repowering: Financial Feasibility, Decision Drivers, and Supply Chain Effects (Golden, CO: US National Renewable Energy Laboratory, December 2013), p. v, https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy14osti/60535.pdf; Kevin Randolph, “Repowering wind turbines becoming more common in US, EIA says”, Daily Energy Insider, 7 November 2017, https://dailyenergyinsider.com/news/8892-repowering-wind-turbines-becoming-common-us-eia-says/. 815
  50. Rankings based on data in this section. The United States added 7,017 MW for a total of 88,973 MW (accounting for decommissioning), from AWEA, AWEA U.S. Wind Industry Annual Market Report Year Ending 2017, op. cit. note 48, and added a net of 6,257 MW in 2017 for a total of 87,543.6 MW, from US Department of Energy (DOE), US Energy Information Administration (EIA), Electric Power Monthly with Data for December 2017 (Washington, DC: February 2018), Table 6.1, https://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly/archive/february2018.pdf; wind power generated 254.3 TWh of electricity in 2017, up 12% over 2016, from idem, Table 1.1.A and Table ES1.B. Note that EIA data do not include facilities smaller than 1 MW and do not include off-grid capacity.816
  51. Based on data from EIA, op. cit. note 50, Table 6.1.817
  52. Texas added 2,305 MW for a total of 22,637 MW, from AWEA, op. cit. note 49, pp. 6, 8. Ranking based on data and sources throughout this section. The states following Texas for capacity added were Oklahoma, Kansas, New Mexico and Iowa, from idem, p. 8.818
  53. Texas’ share of electricity generation from wind power was 14.8% in 2017, based on net wind power generation at utility-scale facilities in all economic sectors and on total net power generation in Texas, from EIA, op. cit. note 50, Tables 1.3.B and 1.14.B.819
  54. Based on net generation from wind power at utility-scale facilities in all economic sectors in each state and nationally and total net generation in each state and nationally, from EIA, op. cit. note 50, Tables 1.3.B and 1.14.B. The top states for share of utility-scale generation from wind were Iowa (36.9%), Kansas (36%), Oklahoma (31.9%), South Dakota (30.1%) and North Dakota (26.8%), all from idem.820
  55. AWEA, op. cit. note 49; Chris Brown, “Major utilities buying more wind as economics drive US energy transformation”, Renewable Energy World, 19 July 2017, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/ugc/articles/2017/07/18/major-utilities-buying-more-wind-as-economics-drive-us-energy-transformation.html.821
  56. AWEA, op. cit. note 49.822
  57. Ibid., pp. 2-3. Announced corporate wind power deals (publicly announced contracted capacity of corporate PPAs as well as green power purchases, green tariffs and outright ownership) in the United States during 2017 totalled 2,281 MW, from Rocky Mountain Institute, Business Renewables Center, “State of the market – BRC member event” (April 2018), slides 2 and 13, http://www.prweb.com/releases/2018/04/prweb15421076.htm. 823
  58. AWEA, op. cit. note 49, p. 9.824
  59. Canada added 341 MW for a total of 12,239 MW, from Canadian Wind Energy Association (CanWEA), “Installed capacity”, https://canwea.ca/wind-energy/installed-capacity/, viewed 31 January 2018. In 2016, Canada added 702 MW, from idem, viewed 17 February 2017, and in 2015 the country added 1,506 MW, from CanWEA, “Wind energy continues rapid growth in Canada in 2015”, press release (Ottawa: 12 January 2016), https://canwea.ca/news-release/2016/01/12/wind-energy-continues-rapid-growth-in-canada-in-2015/.825
  60. CanWEA, “Wind energy in Canada”, https://canwea.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/canwea-2017-wind-energy-in-canada.pdf, viewed 8 March 2018. 826
  61. Ibid., viewed 8 March 2018. Prince Edward Island was followed by Nova Scotia (9%) and Alberta (8%), from idem.827
  62. Additions of 3,056 MW for a total of 21,896 MW in 2017 (including Mexico), from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 17, and additions of 3,138 MW for a total of 22,009 MW, from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 1, p. 53. Down from 2016 based on data for 2017 from idem, both sources, and on 2016 data from GWEC, Global Wind Report – Annual Market Update 2016 (Brussels: April 2017), pp. 15, 18, http://www.gwec.net/strong-outlook-for-wind-power/.828
  63. Among the global top 10 and Brazil added 2,022 MW for a total of 12,763 MW, from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 17; Brazil added 2.02 GW for a total of 12.76 GW, from Associação Brasileira de Energia Eólica (ABEEólica), “Brasil sobe mais uma posição no Ranking mundial de capacidade instalada de energia eólica”, 15 February 2018, http://www.abeeolica.org.br/noticias/brasil-sobe-mais-uma-posicao-no-ranking-mundial-de-capacidade-instalada-de-energia-eolica/ (using Google Translate); added 2,022 MW for a total of 12,718 MW, from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 1, p. 53; and added 1,963 MW for a total of 12,763 MW, from WWEA, op. cit. note 1.829
  64. Two-year lull from Camila Ramos, Clean Energy Latin America, São Paulo, personal communication with REN21, 6 March 2018. Brazil contracted 1.45 GW of wind power capacity in 2017, from idem. Cancellation from Luciano Costa, “Brazil wind, solar projects stall as power demand remains sluggish”, Reuters, 3 July 2017, http://www.reuters.com/article/brazil-power-wind-solar-idUSL8N1JU52W, and from “Brazil cancels 25 wind, solar power projects at request of firms”, Reuters, 28 August 2017, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-brazil-power-renewables/brazil-cancels-25-wind-solar-power-projects-at-request-of-firms-idUSKCN1B82G4. 830
  65. Ramos, op. cit. note 64.831
  66. Data for 2017 from ABEEólica, “CCEE: geração eólica cresce 26,5% em 2017”, 19 February 2018, http://www.abeeolica.org.br/noticias/ccee-geracao-eolica-cresce-265-em-2017/ (using Google Translate); data for 2017 and 2016 also from National Electrical System Operator of Brazil (ONS), “Geração de energia”, http://www.ons.org.br/Paginas/resultados-da-operacao/historico-da-operacao/geracao_energia.aspx, viewed March 2018.832
  67. Mexico added 478 MW for a total of 4,005 MW, Uruguay added 295 MW for a total of 1,505 MW, Chile added 116 MW for a total of 1,540 MW, and Costa Rica added 59 MW for a total of 378 MW, from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 17. Mexico added 478 MW for a total of 4,027 MW, Uruguay added 295 MW for a total of 1,441 MW, Chile added 116 MW for a total of 1,639 MW, and Costa Rica added 59 MW for a total of 426 MW, from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 1, p. 53. 833
  68. Additions of 24 MW from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 17, and from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 1, p. 53; investments and project pipeline from Steve Sawyer, GWEC, personal communication with REN21, 20 September 2017. 834
  69. Sawyer, op. cit. note 3; GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 17.835
  70. South Africa added 618 MW for a total of 2,085 MW, from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 17; GWEC, “The great energy transition gathers momentum”, press release (Brussels: 14 February 2018), https://gwec.net/the-great-energy-transition-gathers-momentum/. Added 621 MW for a total of 2,195 MW, from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 1, p. 55. All of Africa added 940 MW (including 184 MW in Egypt and 135 MW in Morocco) for a total of 4,870 MW, from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 1, p. 55.836
  71. GWEC, op. cit. note 70; Steve Sawyer, GWEC, personal communication with REN21, 14 February 2018. The Lake Turkana project was waiting to be commissioned and awaiting grid connection, from Shruti Shukla, GWEC, personal communication with REN21, 28 March 2018.837
  72. “Saudi Arabia issues REQ for 400MW wind power project”, Technical Review Middle East, 17 July 2017, http://technicalreviewmiddleeast.com/power-a-water/renewables/saudi-arabia-issues-req-for-400mw-wind-power-project-in-al-jouf-region; “Saudi Arabia pre-qualifies 25 bidders for 400 MW wind power project”, EV Wind, 29 August 2017, https://www.evwind.es/2017/08/29/saudi-arabia-pre-qualifies-25-bidders-for-400-mw-wind-power-project/60843; John Bambridge, “Liebherr crane erects first wind turbine in KSA”, Construction Week Online, 30 March 2017, http://www.constructionweekonline.com/article-43720-liebherr-crane-erects-first-wind-turbine-in-ksa/. Iran brought a 30 MW wind power plant (Mapna-Kahak 3) into operation in February 2017 in Takestan, Qazvin Province, from Iran Ministry of Energy, Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Organization, “Statistics of RE power plants”, 31 October 2017, http://www.satba.gov.ir/en/investmentpowerplants/statisticsofrepowerplants. In addition, the government of Khuzestan in Iran signed several agreements with European companies to increase investment in wind power in the province, from “Europeans set to build wind farms in Khuzestan”, Financial Tribune, 2 October 2017, https://financialtribune.com/articles/energy/73335/europeans-set-to-build-wind-farms-in-khuzestan. 838
  73. FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 1, p. 17. Jordan had 119 MW of capacity at year’s end, from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 17. The Middle East region added 22 MW in 2017 for a total of 328 MW, from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 1, p. 55.839
  74. Australia added 245 MW for a total of 4,557 MW, from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 17; added 651 MW for total of 4,976 MW, from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 1, p. 54; and added 553 MW for a total of 4,879 MW, from WWEA, op. cit. note 1. Additional capacity from, for example, Sophie Vorrath, “Victoria set to host Australia’s biggest wind farm – 800MW”, RenewEconomy, 26 September 2017, http://reneweconomy.com.au/victoria-set-host-australias-biggest-wind-farm-800mw-40345/; Declan Gooch, “Australia’s biggest wind turbine blades trucked 530km to far west NSW wind farm”, ABC News, 6 December 2017, http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-12-07/australias-biggest-wind-turbine-blades-trucked-silverton-nsw/9236010; David Porter, “Tilt Renewables begins to develop its energy pipeline”, Bay of Plenty Business News, 31 January 2018, http://bopbusinessnews.co.nz/2018/01/31/tilt-renewables-begins-develop-energy-pipeline/.840
  75. Figure of 4,334 MW connected to grids in nine countries for world total of 18,814 MW, and onshore total based on global total wind capacity at end-2017, from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, pp. 54-55. World capacity increased 25.9% for a total of 18,228 MW, from EurObserv’ER, op. cit. note 1, p. 4; 4,358 MW was added (including 3,181 MW in Europe and 1,177 MW in Asia-Pacific), for a total of 18,391 MW, and globally 21 offshore turbines (totalling 35 MW) were decommissioned, from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 1, p. 48; 11 offshore turbines were decommissioned in Europe, from WindEurope, Offshore Wind in Europe, op. cit. note 37, p. 11.841
  76. The United Kingdom added 1,679 MW, followed by Germany (1,247 MW), China (1,164 MW) and Belgium (165 MW); others that added capacity were Finland (60 MW), Japan (5 MW), the Republic of Korea (3 MW), Chinese Taipei (8 MW) and France (2 MW). Data for European countries from WindEurope, Offshore Wind in Europe, op. cit. note 37, p. 18; data for other countries from GWEC, op. cit. 1, p. 55. Germany added 1,275 MW based on 4,132 MW at end of 2016 and 5,407 MW at end of 2017, from BMWi, op. cit. note 37, p. 7; and China added 1.16 GW, from CWEA, op. cit. note 13. 842
  77. A record 3,148 MW (net) was connected to the grid for a total of 15,780 MW, and 1,927 MW (82 turbines) was awaiting grid-connection at year’s end, from WindEurope, Offshore Wind in Europe, op. cit. note 37, p. 7.843
  78. All from WindEurope, Offshore Wind in Europe, op. cit. note 37, p. 10. Finland added 60 MW, from idem and from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 55, and added 42 MW from “Finns cut Tahkoluoto ribbon”, reNEWS, 1 September 2017, http://renews.biz/108340/finns-cut-tahkoluoto-ribbon/. France added its first offshore turbine, a 2 MW Floatgen demonstrator launched by Ideol (France), from WindEurope, Offshore Wind in Europe, op. cit. note 37, p. 10, and from Ideol, “Ideol has inaugurated Floatgen”, press release (La Ciotat, France: 13 October 2017), http://ideol-offshore.com/en/actualites/ideol-has-inaugurated-floatgen. Denmark decommissioned the 5 MW Vindeby wind farm for a year-end total of 1,266 MW, from WindEurope, Offshore Wind in Europe, op. cit. note 37, p. 18. In addition, Portugal decommissioned a 2 MW demonstration project in 2017, from WindEurope, op. cit. note 6. Germany added 222 turbines offshore with a combined capacity of 1,250 MW; in addition, 152 existing turbines received upgrades, increasing their capacity by up to 29 MW, increasing total offshore capacity feeding the grid by 1,279 MW to 5,387.4 MW, or an increase in cumulative capacity of 31% over end-2016, all from Deutsche Windguard, Status of Offshore…, op. cit. note 37.844
  79. Statoil, “World class performance by world’s first floating wind farm”, press release (Stavanger, Norway: 15 February 2018), https://www.statoil.com/en/news/15feb2018-world-class-performance.html; EurObserv’ER, op. cit. note 1, p. 9.845
  80. China added 1,164 MW in 2017 for a year-end total of 2,788 MW, from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 55; capacity under construction from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 1, p. 32.846
  81. Lagging and challenges from Teis Jensen, “China to call on Denmark to help build offshore wind farm”, Reuters, 4 September 2017, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-denmark-windpower-china/china-to-call-on-denmark-to-help-build-offshore-wind-farm-idUSKCN1BF1DX; regulatory barriers from Zhao, op. cit. note 6; regulatory and jurisdictional issues from Sawyer, op. cit. note 14; on track from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 58. At least three provinces also have targets: Jiangsu (3.5 GW by 2020), Guangdong and Fujian (both 2 GW by 2020), from GWEC, “Latest update on China offshore wind”, 2018, http://gwec.net/latest-update-on-china-offshore-wind/, viewed March 2018. 847
  82. Additions from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, pp. 55, 57-60; Japan’s first offshore tender from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 1, p. 32. The auction followed the government’s amendment of existing port and harbour law in 2016 in order to promote offshore development, from Ibid.848
  83. Figures of 14 projects, capacity and 10 states, all from AWEA, AWEA U.S. Wind Industry Annual Market Report Year Ending 2017, op. cit. note 48. Policies in five states (Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York and Rhode Island) from Val Stori, “The launch of a U.S. offshore wind industry”, Clean Energy Group, 7 February 2018, https://www.cleanegroup.org/launch-u-s-offshore-wind-industry/. Massachusetts and New York are focusing on development of infrastructure, such as ports and transmission lines, from Iulia Gheorghiu, “East coast states take lead in offshore wind after Paris Accord”, Morning Consult, 19 July 2017, https://morningconsult.com/2017/07/19/east-coast-states-take-lead-offshore-wind-paris-accord/. As of 2017, Massachusetts had a Renewable Portfolio Standard of 1.6 GW of offshore wind by 2027, from Jennifer Delony, “Bids are in for Massachusetts offshore wind procurement; storage included”, Renewable Energy World, 20 December 2017, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2017/12/bids-are-in-for-massachusetts-offshore-wind-procurement-storage-included.html; by early 2018, several other East Coast states had targets, from Greg Alvarez, “One month into 2018 offshore wind is all the rage”, AWEA, 1 February 2018, http://www.aweablog.org/one-month-2018-offshore-wind-rage/. Other states exploring options for offshore wind power include California and Delaware, from Steve Hanley, “California & Delaware explore offshore wind power”, CleanTechnica, 28 November 2017, https://cleantechnica.com/2017/11/28/california-delaware-explore-offshore-wind-power/; Gary Norton, “4 emerging trends in U.S. offshore wind technologies”, US DOE, Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy (EERE), 9 August 2017, https://energy.gov/eere/articles/4-emerging-trends-us-offshore-wind-technologies. 849
  84. Cole Latimer, “Australia’s first offshore wind farm wins international funding”, 6 December 2017, http://www.smh.com.au/business/energy/australia-s-first-offshore-wind-farm-international-funding-20171205-p4yxfb.html; Joshua S. Hill, “Australia’s first offshore wind farm takes next step toward reality”, CleanTechnica, 1 December 2017, https://cleantechnica.com/2017/12/01/australias-first-offshore-wind-farm-takes-next-step-towards-reality/.850
  85. Total of 17 includes Chinese Taipei, from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 55. Countries with demonstration projects were Spain (5 MW), France (2 MW floating) and Norway (2.3 MW) , from WindEurope, op. cit. note 6; and Chinese Taipei, from Power Technology, “Formosa 1 offshore wind farm”, https://www.power-technology.com/projects/formosa-1-offshore-wind-farm/, viewed 29 March 2018. 851
  86. The United Kingdom had 6,835 MW, Germany had 5,355 MW, Denmark had 1,266 MW, and the Netherlands had 1,118 MW, from WindEurope, Offshore Wind in Europe, op. cit. note 37, p. 18; the United Kingdom had 6,836 MW, followed in Europe by Germany (5,355 MW), Denmark (1,271 MW) and the Netherlands (1,118 MW), and China had 2,788 MW, from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, pp. 56, 57. Note that Germany had a total of 5,407 MW offshore at the end of 2017, from BMWi, op. cit. note 37, p. 7.852
  87. Europe’s total offshore capacity at year’s end was 15,780 MW, from WindEurope, Offshore Wind in Europe, op. cit. note 37, p. 18. Europe was followed by Asia (2,998 MW) and the United States (30 MW), from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 55. Europe’s share in 2016 based on data from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 1, p. 48. Figure 36 based on data from GWEC, Global Wind Report – Annual Market Update 2015 (Brussels: April 2016), pp. 50-51, http://www.gwec.net/wp-content/uploads/vip/GWEC-Global-Wind-2015-Report_April-2016_19_04.pdf; GWEC, op. cit. note 62, p. 58; GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 55; Shi Pengfei, CWEA, personal communication with REN21, April 2010 and March 2017; FTI Consulting, Global Wind Market Update – Demand & Supply 2016, Part Two – Demand Side Analysis (London: March 2017), p. 60; WindEurope, The European Offshore Wind Industry – Key Trends and Statistics 2016 (Brussels: January 2017), p. 17, https://windeurope.org/wp-content/uploads/files/about-wind/statistics/WindEurope-Annual-Offshore-Statistics-2016.pdf; WindEurope, Offshore Wind in Europe, op. cit. note 37, p. 6; AWEA, “First US offshore wind farm unlocks vast new ocean energy resource”, press release (Block Island, RI: 12 December 2016), http://www.awea.org/MediaCenter/pressreleasev2.aspx?ItemNumber=9627.853
  88. See, for example, Energy4All Limited, “European co-operative growth”, https://energy4all.co.uk/european-co-operative-growth/, viewed 28 April 2018; Energy4All Limited, “E4A co-ops”, https://energy4all.co.uk/e4a-co-ops/, viewed 28 April 2018; Community Windpower website, http://www.communitywindpower.co.uk/, viewed 28 April 2018; Windustry, “Community wind”, http://www.windustry.org/community-wind, viewed 28 April 2018; Simon Holmes à Court, “NSW’s largest windfarm highlights power of community investment”, The Guardian (UK), 19 January 2018, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/jan/20/nsws-largest-windfarm-highlights-power-of-community-investment. 854
  89. Shota Furuya, Institute for Sustainable Energy Policies, “The community power movement is on the rise in Japan”, The Beam, 13 February 2017, https://medium.com/thebeammagazine/community-power-gears-up-global-renewable-energy-movement-dccbc184fea6. 855
  90. Robin Whitlock, “Mean Moor becomes the first wind farm in the UK to transfer to community ownership”, Renewable Energy Magazine, 14 February 2018, https://www.renewableenergymagazine.com/wind/mean-moor-becomes-the-first-wind-farm-20180214; acquisition of three 2.3 MW turbines occurred 11 July 2017, from Energy4All UK, “Mean Moor”, https://energy4all.co.uk/mean-moor/, viewed 18 April 2018. Note that, due to a rush in advance of policy changes, fewer projects were launched in 2017 than in 2016, from Gary Hartley, “2018: A community energy fightback?” Energy Saving Trust, 8 February 2018, http://www.energysavingtrust.org.uk/blog/2018-community-energy-fightback. 856
  91. Craig Morris, “Share of German citizen renewable energy shrinking”, Energy Transition, 7 February 2018, https://energytransition.org/2018/02/share-of-german-citizen-renewable-energy-shrinking/. Citizens (households and farms) accounted for 42.5% of investments in renewable energy through 2016, down from 27% through the end of 2012, from Trend Research, cited in Morris, op. cit. this note.857
  92. BMWi, “Akteursvielfalt/Bürgerenergie”, https://www.erneuerbare-energien.de/EE/Navigation/DE/Recht-Politik/EEG-Ausschreibungen/Akteursvielfalt-Buergerenergie/akteursvielfalt-buergerenergie.htm, viewed 17 April 2018; FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 1, p. 15; WWEA and Landesverband Erneuerbare Energien Nordrhein-Westfalen, Community Wind in North Rhine-Westphalia: Perspectives from State, Federal and Global Level, Status December 2017 (Bonn and Düsseldorf: January 2018), pp. iv, 15-16, 25, 40, http://www.wwindea.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/CP_Study_English_reduced.pdf. Lower access barriers include no requirement for planning approval and a longer term for implementation, from BMWi, op. cit. this note. There were a number of community projects even though it seems that many of them were backed or sponsored by large corporations, from Sebastian Hermann, German Environment Agency, personal communication with REN21, April 2018.858
  93. WWEA, 2017 Small Wind World Report Summary (Bonn: June 2017), p. 5, http://www.wwindea.org/wp-content/uploads/filebase/small_wind_/SWWR2017-SUMMARY.pdf; Alice Orrell et al., 2016 Distributed Wind Market Report (Richland, WA: Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, August 2017), p. i, https://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2017/08/f35/2016-Distributed-Wind-Market-Report.pdf; WWEA, Small Wind World Report 2016 (Bonn: March 2016), Summary, http://www.wwindea.org/small-wind-world-market-back-on-track-again/; RenewableUK, Small and Medium Wind UK Market Report (London: March 2015), https://cdn.ymaws.com/www.renewableuk.com/resource/resmgr/publications/reports/smallmediumwindukmarket.pdf; SWIP Project, “SWIP objectives and summary”, http://swipproject.eu/?page_id=12146, viewed 11 March 2018; displace diesel from Navigant Research, “Small and medium wind power”, http://www.navigantresearch.com/research/small-and-medium-wind-power, viewed 12 February 2014. 859
  94. WWEA, Small Wind World Report 2018 Summary (Bonn: forthcoming June, 2018). Installations totalled an estimated 116.38 MW in 2016 (not including data for Australia, Denmark and New Zealand, which were not available), from Orrell et al., op. cit. note 93, p. 9. 860
  95. Data for 2016 from WWEA, op. cit. note 94. Data for 2015 were preliminary, from WWEA, 2017 Small Wind World Report Summary, op. cit. note 93. Global small wind capacity at end-2016 was estimated to be at least 1.4 GW, from Orrell et al., op. cit. note 93, p. i. This was up from an estimated 1.3 GW at the end of 2015, based on surveys of international government and industry publications, from Alice C. Orrell et al., 2015 Distributed Wind Market Report (Richland, WA: Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, August 2016), p. ii, https://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2016/08/f33/2015-Distributed-Wind-Market-Report-08162016_0.pdf, and from an estimated 810 MW at the end of 2014, 678 MW in 2012, and 755 MW in 2013, from Alice C. Orrell et al., 2014 Distributed Wind Market Report (Washington, DC: US DOE, EERE), August 2015), pp. 15-16, https://energy.gov/eere/wind/downloads/2014-distributed-wind-market-report.861
  96. WWEA, op. cit. note 94.862
  97. Navigant Research, “Global annual installed capacity of small and medium wind turbines is expected to exceed 446 MW in 2026”, press release (Boulder, CO: March 2017), https://www.navigantresearch.com/newsroom/global-annual-installed-capacity-of-small-and-medium-wind-turbines-is-expected-to-exceed-446-mw-in-2026; Orrell et al., op. cit. note 93, pp. 9-10; Michael Allen, “New blades and generators for more efficient small wind turbines”, Phys Org, 17 January 2017, https://phys.org/news/2017-01-blades-efficient-small-turbines.html.863
  98. WWEA, op. cit. note 94.864
  99. United Kingdom and United States from Orrell et al., op. cit. note 93, pp. 7, 9-10, 14. In 2016, the United States deployed only 2.4 MW of small-scale wind turbines, but sales of turbines 10 kW and less increased relative to 2015, for total unit sales of 2,560 in 2016; this compares with 3.4 MW (1,695 units) in 2015, 3.7 MW (1,600 units) in 2014 and 5.6 MW (2,700 units) in 2013, from idem, pp. i, 7, 9. 865
  100. Figure of 561 turbines (for total capacity of 551 MW), from FTI Consulting, Global Wind Market Update – Demand & Supply 2017, Part One – Supply Side Analysis (London: April 2018), p. 25, https://fti-intelligencestore.com/index.php?route=download/main&download_id=159; figure of 646.8 MW from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 17. Estimate of 614 MW decommissioned worldwide during 2017 (605 MW in the EU, 7 MW in Japan, 2 MW elsewhere in Asia) from EurObserv’ER, op. cit. note 1, p. 3. 866
  101. Germany dismantled 387 onshore turbines totalling 467 MW, Denmark dismantled 96 MW, followed by the Netherlands (68 MW), Latvia (3.7 MW), Finland (3 MW) and Belgium (1.7 MW), from WindEurope, op. cit. note 6; Japan decommissioned 7.3 MW and the Republic of Korea decommissioned 1.5 MW, from Sawyer, op. cit. note 14. Germany dismantled 387 units for a total of 482 MW, followed by Denmark (162 units, 91 MW), Japan (8 units, 5 MW), Finland (3 units, 3 MW) and Chinese Taipei (1 unit, 2 MW), from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 100, p. 25. Germany decommissioned 371 onshore turbines, based on data from Bundesnetzagentur, “Veröffentlichung der Registerdaten (08/2014 bis 02/2018)”, updated 31 March 2018, https://www.bundesnetzagentur.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/Sachgebiete/Energie/Unternehmen_Institutionen/ErneuerbareEnergien/ZahlenDatenInformationen/VOeFF_Registerdaten/2018_02_Veroeff_RegDaten.html?nn=654268, provided by Peter Bickel, Zentrum für Sonnenenergie und Wasserstoff-Forschung, personal communication with REN21, April 2018. Finland also from Craig Richard, “First Finnish repowering project complete”, Windpower Monthly, 9 October 2017, https://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1446814/first-finnish-repowering-project-complete. The United States decommissioned 33 turbines with a total of 43 MW of capacity, from AWEA, AWEA U.S. Wind Industry Annual Market Report Year Ending 2017, op. cit. note 48. 867
  102. Total EU share based on total EU electricity consumption of 2,906 TWh, onshore wind energy production of 292 TWh and offshore wind energy production of 43 TWh, from WindEurope, op. cit. note 11, p. 21. In addition to Denmark, those countries (from highest to lowest share of annual electricity demand met by wind power) were Portugal, Ireland, Germany, Spain, the United Kingdom, Sweden and Romania, from idem, p. 22. Denmark’s share of electricity consumption met by wind power from Magnus Hornø Gottlieb, “Danmark sætter ny rekord i vind”, Dansk Energi, 3 January 2018, https://www.danskenergi.dk/nyheder/danmark-saetter-ny-rekord-vind (using Google Translate). Denmark’s share of net generation based on preliminary net generation data of 14,777 GWh from wind power, 789 GW from solar PV, and total net production of 29,453 GWh, from Danish Energy Agency, "Månedlig elstatistik. Hele landet", from Annual Energy Statistics 2017, https://ens.dk/en/our-services/statistics-data-key-figures-and-energy-maps/annual-and-monthly-statistics, accessed 17 April 2018. 868
  103. Ten countries in Europe (Denmark, Portugal, Ireland, Germany, Spain, the United Kingdom, Sweden, Romania, Austria and Lithuania), from WindEurope, op. cit. note 11, p. 22; Costa Rica from Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad, Generación y Demanda Informe Annual Centro Nacional de Control de Energía, 2017 (San José: March 2018), p. 5, https://appcenter.grupoice.com/CenceWeb/CenceDescargaArchivos.jsf?init=true&categoria=3&codigoTipoArchivo=3008; Nicaragua based on share of net generation, from Instituto Nicaragüense de Energía, Ente Regulador, “Generación neta sistema eléctrico nacional año 2017”, http://www.ine.gob.ni/DGE/estadisticas/2017/generacion_neta_2017_actmar18.pdf, viewed 12 April 2018; Uruguay from Ministerio de Industria, Energía y Minería (MIEM), “Balance preliminar 2017”, provided by MIEM, personal communication with REN21, 20 April 2018.869
  104. Based on historical data from Uruguay MIEM, “Generación bruta de energía eléctrica por planta”, http://www.dne.gub.uy/publicaciones-y-estadisticas/planificacion-y-balance/estadisticas?p_p_auth=LJ2wf27A&p_p_id=101&p_p_lifecycle=0&p_p_state=maximized&_101_struts_action=%2Fasset_publisher%2Fview_content&_101_assetEntryId=39886&_101_type=document&redirect=%2F-%2Fseries-estadisticas-de-energia-electrica-, accessed 1 April 2018; data for 2017 from MIEM, op. cit. note 103. Nicaragua share of net generation (15.11%), from Instituto Nicaragüense de Energía, Ente Regulador, op. cit. note 103.870
  105. Share of 5.6% based on the following: estimated wind generation of 1,430 TWh, based on capacity at end-2017 from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 17, and on weighted average capacity factors by region, and for both onshore and offshore wind power, from International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), personal communication with REN21, March-April 2018 (see Table 3 in this report). Total global electricity generation in 2017 is estimated at 25,518 TWh, based on 24,765 TWh in 2016 from IEA, World Energy Outlook 2017 (Paris: 2017), and on an estimated 3.04% growth in global electricity generation for 2017. The growth rate is based on the weighted average actual change in total generation for the following countries (which together account for nearly two-thirds of global generation in 2016): United States (-1.52% net generation), EU (+2.88%), Russian Federation (+0.52%), India (+7.67%), China (+5.9%) and Brazil (+1.02%). Sources for 2016 and 2017 electricity generation by country are: US EIA, op. cit. note 50, Table 1.1; European Commission, Eurostat database, http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat, viewed May 2018; System Operator of the Unified Energy System of Russia, Report on the Unified Energy System in 2017 (Moscow: 31 January 2018), http://www.so-ups.ru/fileadmin/files/company/reports/disclosure/2018/ups_rep2017.pdf; Government of India, Ministry of Power, Central Electricity Authority, “Monthly Generation Report,” http://www.cea.nic.in/monthlyarchive.html, viewed April 2018; National Bureau of Statistics of China, “Statistical communiqué of the People’s Republic of China on the 2017 national economic and social development”, press release (Beijing: 28 February 2018), http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/PressRelease/201802/t20180228_1585666.html (using Google Translate); ONS, op. cit. note 66, viewed April 2018. All wind turbines in operation by year's end could cover more than 5% of global electricity demand, from WWEA, op. cit. note 1; and during 2017 wind power accounted for close to 5% of global power supply, from Steve Sawyer, “Global wind energy insight: the knowns, known unknowns and unknown unknowns”, Renewable Energy World, 27 April 2018, https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2018/04/global-wind-energy-insight-the-knowns-known-unknowns-and-unknown-unknowns.html. 871
  106. Steve Sawyer, GWEC, personal communication with REN21, 8 February 2018; GWEC, op. cit. note 70. See also Gillian Steward, “Alberta leads the pack with cheap wind power; more to come”, Renewable Energy World, 21 February 2018, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2018/02/alberta-leads-the-pack-with-cheap-wind-power-more-to-come.html; “Wind joins pricing race with solar”, Bridge to India, 9 October 2017, http://www.bridgetoindia.com/wind-joins-pricing-race-solar/; FS-UNEP and BNEF, op. cit. note 8, pp. 11, 40; FTI Intelligence, op. cit. note 3. 872
  107. Ander Runevad, Group President and CEO of Vestas, cited in Vestas, op. cit. note 8, viewed 18 March 2018; Peter Fairley, “For the first time, offshore wind power will be profitable without subsidies”, IEEE Spectrum, 26 June 2017, https://spectrum.ieee.org/green-tech/wind/for-the-first-time-wind-power-will-be-profitable-without-subsidies; Tino Andresen, “Offshore wind farms offer subsidy-free power for first time”, Renewable Energy World, 18 April 2017, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2017/04/offshore-wind-farms-offer-subsidy-free-power-for-first-time.html; Jess Shankleman et al., “Gigantic wind turbines signal era of subsidy-free green power”, Bloomberg, 21 April 2017, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-04-20/gigantic-wind-turbines-signal-era-of-subsidy-free-green-power; EurObserv’ER, op. cit. note 1, p. 16.873
  108. Steve Sawyer, GWEC, personal communication with REN21, 13 December 2017; William Steel, “Bigger turbines, better economics, more digitization on deck for 2018 wind power market”, Renewable Energy World, 14 February 2018, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/print/volume-21/issue-1/features/wind/bigger-turbines-better-economics-more-digitization-on-deck-for-2018-wind-power-market.html; Lazard, “Lazard’s levelized cost of energy analysis version 11.0”, 2 November 2017, https://www.lazard.com/perspective/levelized-cost-of-energy-2017/; IRENA, Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2017 (Abu Dhabi: 2018), p. 15, http://irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2018/Jan/IRENA_2017_Power_Costs_2018.pdf; FS-UNEP and BNEF, op. cit. note 8, pp. 16-17.874
  109. GWEC, op. cit. note 70; David Weston and Craig Richard, “Fierce competition, Indian lull squeeze OEM revenues”, Windpower Monthly, 1 March 2018, https://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1457913/fierce-competition-indian-lull-squeeze-oem-revenues; Nordex, “Nordex Group closes 2017 in line with guidance”, press release (Hamburg: 27 February 2018), http://www.nordex-online.com/index.php?id=53&L=2&tx_ttnews[tt_news]=2973&tx_ttnews[backPid]=45&cHash=741640e7f0; Anna Hirtenstein, “Wind feels the force of world markets”, Renewable Energy World, 15 November 2017, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2017/11/wind-energy-feels-the-force-of-world-markets.html; Vestas, op. cit. note 8.875
  110. FTI Intelligence, op. cit. note 3.876
  111. GWEC, op. cit. note 70. See also Steward, op. cit. note 106; “Wind joins pricing race with solar”, op. cit. note 106; FS-UNEP and BNEF, op. cit. note 8, pp. 11, 40; FTI Intelligence, op. cit. note 3. 877
  112. GWEC, op. cit. note 70. The average awarded price in Mexico’s record-breaking auction was USD 18.68 per MWh, from FTI Consulting, “A new competitive landscape is taking shape: bigger, better and stronger”, Intelligence Spark, 5 March 2018, https://fti-intelligencestore.com/index.php?route=spark/main. World record low from FS-UNEP and BNEF, op. cit. note 8, pp. 11, 40, and from FTI Intelligence, op. cit. note 3. Down 40-50% from Steve Sawyer, GWEC, personal communication with REN21, 6 December 2017.878
  113. BMWi, “Nationale Ausschreibungen und Ergebnisse”, https://www.erneuerbare-energien.de/EE/Redaktion/DE/Dossier/nationale-ausschreibungen-und-ergebnisse.html, viewed 17 April 2018. 879
  114. Germany from Ibid.; Tino Andresen, “Offshore wind farms offer subsidy-free power for first time”, Bloomberg, 13 April 2017, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-04-13/germany-gets-bids-for-first-subsidy-free-offshore-wind-farms; Joshua S. Hill, “First subsidy-free offshore wind deal in German offshore wind auction, DONG Energy & EnBW win big”, CleanTechnica, 14 April 2018, https://cleantechnica.com/2017/04/14/first-subsidy-free-offshore-wind-deal-german-offshore-wind-auction-dong-energy-enbw-win-big/; GWEC, op. cit. note 70; FTI Intelligence, op. cit. note 3. Netherlands from David Weston, “Vattenfall awarded Dutch zero-subsidy site”, Windpower Offshore, 19 March 2018, https://www.windpoweroffshore.com/article/1459857/vattenfall-awarded-dutch-zero-subsidy-site, and from David Weston, “Vattenfall bids in no-subsidy Dutch tender”, Windpower Offshore, 15 December 2017, https://www.windpoweroffshore.com/article/1452992/vattenfall-bids-no-subsidy-duch-tender. 880
  115. Both governments carried out pre-feasibility and resource measurement studies in advance of the tenders, from WindEurope, op. cit. note 6. German government covers grid connection costs, from BMWi, “Windenergieanlagen auf See”, https://www.bundesnetzagentur.de/DE/Sachgebiete/ElektrizitaetundGas/Unternehmen_Institutionen/Ausschreibungen/Offshore/offshore-node.html, viewed 17 April 2018; in the range of USD 10-20 per MWh for recent projects, from IEA, World Energy Outlook 2017 (Paris: 2017), p. 276. Dutch government commitments from Weston, op. cit. note 114, both sources.881
  116. David Weston, “UK offshore falls to £57.50 in latest CfD round”, Windpower Offshore, 11 September 2017, http://www.windpoweroffshore.com/article/1444146/uk-offshore-falls-5750-latest-cfd-round; FTI Intelligence, op. cit. note 3; Craig Richard, “Reaction: UK offshore CfD ‘breakthrough moment’ for industry”, Windpower Offshore, 11 September 2017, http://www.windpoweroffshore.com/article/1444212/reaction-uk-offshore-cfd-breakthrough-moment-industry; EurObserv’ER, op. cit. note 1, p. 14. Under a UK Contract for Difference (CfD) auction contract, which can last for a period of several years, selected wind power generators are guaranteed a fixed price (a pre-agreed price, or “strike price”); if the market price is below the strike price, they are paid the difference and, if the market price is above the strike price, the generator pays the difference. See, for example, UK Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy, “Policy paper: Contracts for Difference”, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/contracts-for-difference/contract-for-difference, updated 11 September 2017. 882
  117. Herman K. Trabish, “Getting to ‘head-spinning’ low prices for U.S. offshore wind”, Utility Dive, 23 January 2018, https://www.utilitydive.com/news/getting-to-head-spinning-low-prices-for-us-offshore-wind/515188/; Stori, op. cit. note 83.883
  118. “Offshore wind success continues through 2017”, Renewable Energy World, 8 February 2018, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2018/02/offshore-wind-success-continues-through-2017.html; Christoph Steitz, “Wind turbine tie-ups under pressure as sector awaits more deals”, Reuters, 22 August 2017, http://af.reuters.com/article/commoditiesNews/idAFL8N1L70YO; Anna Hirtenstein, “Wind energy feels the force of world markets”, Renewable Energy World, 15 November 2017, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2017/11/wind-energy-feels-the-force-of-world-markets.html; FTI Intelligence, op. cit. note 3.884
  119. Vestas cut jobs, from Jess Shankleman et al., “Gigantic wind turbines signal era of subsidy-free green power”, Bloomberg, 21 April 2017, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-04-20/gigantic-wind-turbines-signal-era-of-subsidy-free-green-power; Siemens Gamesa announced plans to cut 6,000 jobs in November, from Steitz, op. cit. note 118; Jacob Gronholt-Pedersen, “Siemens Gamesa to cut 600 jobs at wind blade factory in Denmark”, 18 August 2017, https://af.reuters.com/article/commoditiesNews/idAFS3N1K802D; Hirtenstein, op. cit. note 118. Before its merger with Gamesa, Siemens closed a blade factory in Denmark, and a combination of fierce competition, uncertainty about US tax policies and inability to retool for larger blade production forced Siemens Wind Power (Canada; formerly part of Siemens) to close a factory in Ontario, from Josh O’Kane, “Siemens Wind Power to close Ontario turbine blade plant, cut 340 jobs”, Globe and Mail, 18 July 2017, https://beta.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/siemens-to-close-ontario-wind-turbine-blade-plant-340-jobs-to-be-lost/article35716643/. Small and medium-sized vendors from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 112.885
  120. David Weston, “Senvion closures force earnings down”, Windpower Monthly, 11 May 2017, http://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1433202/senvion-factory-closures-force-earnings-down.886
  121. Nordex, “Nordex Group closes 2017 in line with guidance”, press release (Hamburg: 27 February 2018), http://www.nordex-online.com/index.php?id=53&L=2&tx_ttnews[tt_news]=2973&tx_ttnews[backPid]=45&cHash=741640e7f0. 887
  122. Press Trust of India, “Suzlon Energy arm to exit Brazilian market, files for sale of assets”, Business Standard, 15 July 2017, http://www.business-standard.com/article/international/suzlon-energy-arm-to-exit-brazilian-market-files-for-sale-of-assets-117071500517_1.html.888
  123. FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 112.889
  124. Siemens Gamesa Renewable Energy, “Siemens and Gamesa to merge wind businesses to create a leading wind power player”, press release (Madrid: 17 June 2017), https://www.siemens.com/press/en/pressrelease/?press=/en/pressrelease/2016/corporate/pr2016060295coen.htm&content[]=Corp&content[]=WP, viewed July 2017; Adwen turbines from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 112.890
  125. Figure of 80% for 2017, from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 100, pp. 6, 10, 11; figure of 75% in 2016 based on data from FTI Consulting, Global Wind Market Update – Demand & Supply 2016, Part One – Supply Side Analysis (London: 2017), p. 10, http://www.fti-intelligencestore.com/index.php?route=download/main&download_id=147. Figure 37 based on data from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 100, pp. 6, 10, 11. Data based on total sales of 52,150 MW, and considering only manufacturers that sell turbines of 200 kW and up. Data for Vestas include 50% of new installations from MHI Vestas, a joint venture between Vestas Wind Systems A/S and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI).891
  126. FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 100, p. 10. As of 2016, Vestas was the most globalised supplier, with installations in 34 countries, from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 125, p. 12, http://www.fti-intelligencestore.com/index.php?route=download/main&download_id=147. In 2017, Vestas installed turbines in 30 markets, from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 112.892
  127. FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 112.893
  128. FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 100, p. 11; “Vestas keeps lead in onshore wind, Siemens Gamesa narrows gap”, BNEF, 26 February 2018, https://about.newenergyfinance.com/about/blog/vestas-keeps-lead-in-onshore-wind-siemens-gamesa-narrows-gap/. 894
  129. FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 100, p. 11. The top 10 manufacturers, in order from first to tenth, were Siemens Gamesa, Vestas, Goldwind, GE, Enercon, Envision (China), Nordex and Senvion (both Germany), Suzlon (India) and Guodian UP (China), from BNEF, cited in Jim Efstathious, “These four power giants rule the world’s growing wind market”, Bloomberg, 26 February 2018, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-02-26/these-four-power-giants-rule-the-world-s-growing-wind-market. The top five were Siemens Gamesa, Vestas, Goldwind, GE and Enercon, per MAKE Consulting, cited in Joshua S. Hill, “Siemens Gamesa overtakes Vestas as leading wind manufacturer”, CleanTechnica, 23 April 2018, https://cleantechnica.com/2018/04/23/siemens-gamesa-overtakes-vestas-as-leading-wind-manufacturer/. 895
  130. FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 112. Goldwind and Envision accounted for 42% of China’s market in 2017, up from 36% in 2016, from idem. The turbine manufacturing industry has become more concentrated over the past five years, with the top five companies increasing their market share from 54% in 2013 to 67% in 2017, from CWEA, op. cit. note 13.896
  131. Most manufacturing from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 100, p. 11. Components from Feng Zhao, FTI Consulting, personal communication with REN21, 12 April 2017; FTI Consulting, Global Wind Supply Chain Update 2015 (London: January 2015), Executive Summary, http://www.fticonsulting.com/~/media/Files/us-files/intelligence/intelligence-events/global-wind-supply-chain-update-2015-fti-ppt-final.pdf. See also sources in endnotes 132 to 137 for this paragraph.897
  132. Feifei Shen, “China’s biggest wind turbine maker expands into Philippines, Australia”, Renewable Energy World, 12 July 2017, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2017/07/china-s-biggest-wind-turbine-maker-expands-in-philippines-australia.html. During 2017, Goldwind had the highest export volume of Chinese manufacturers; the company exported 197 turbines with a total capacity of 399.5 MW to six countries, from CWEA, op. cit. note 13. 898
  133. Suuhas Tenddulkar, “Western manufacturers set up presence in booming India”, Windpower Monthly, 3 July 2017, http://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1437289/western-manufacturers-step-presence-booming-india.899
  134. David Weston, “Gamesa opens Indian blade factory”, Windpower Monthly, 3 February 2017, http://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1423092/gamesa-opens-indian-blade-factory; “Siemens Gamesa opens African blade factory”, Windpower Monthly, 11 October 2017, http://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1447117/siemens-gamesa-opens-african-blade-factory.900
  135. LM Wind Power, “Production begins at new wind turbine blade plant in Turkey!”, press release (Bergama, Turkey: 11 July 2017), https://www.lmwindpower.com/en/stories-and-press/stories/news-from-lm-places/production-begins-at-new-wind-turbine-blade-plant-in-turkey; Betsy Lillian, “GE’s LM Wind Power opens up 15th blade plant”, North American Windpower, 22 May 2017, http://nawindpower.com/ges-lm-wind-power-opens-15th-blade-plant; “LM strengthens presence in China”, Windpower Monthly, 17 May 2017, http://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1433763/lm-strengthens-presence-china.901
  136. Swann Bigot, “The Danish Vestas will build its first blade factory in Russia”, Eurasian Network, 23 September 2017, https://eurasianetwork.eu/2017/09/23/danish-vestas-will-build-its-first-blade-factory-in-russia/; David Weston, “Vestas signs Russian blade factory deal”, Windpower Monthly, 8 September 2017, http://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1444081/vestas-signs-russian-blade-factory-deal. 902
  137. For example, Vanessa Dezem, “European wind turbine manufacturers flock to Argentina”, Renewable Energy World”, 20 March 2018, https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2018/03/european-wind-turbine-manufacturers-flock-to-argentina.html; Feifei Shen, “China’s biggest wind turbine maker expands into Philippines, Australia”, Renewable Energy World, 12 July 2017, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2017/07/china-s-biggest-wind-turbine-maker-expands-in-philippines-australia.html; Nordex, “Nordex Group opens branch office in Australia”, press release (Hamburg: 24 October 2017), http://www.nordex-online.com/en/news-press/news-detail.html; and German turbine maintenance provider, Deutsche Windtechnik, expanded into the United States, from “Windtechnik crosses Atlantic”, reNEWS, 14 December 2017, http://renews.biz/109521/windtechnik-crosses-atlantic/.903
  138. Market size (based on billion Euro market) from GWEC, cited in Jennifer Runyon, “Making the most energy from the wind”, Renewable Energy World, May/June 2015, pp. 32-37. United States from Suparna Ray, “Repowering wind turbines adds generating capacity at existing sites”, EIA, 6 November 2017, https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=33632. 904
  139. Ray, op. cit. note 138; Justin Gerdes, “Repowering North America’s aging wind turbines is a $25 billion opportunity”, Greentech Media, 1 December 2017, https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/could-repowering-be-the-solution-for-north-americas-aging-wind-turbines; Craig Richard, “First Finnish repowering project complete”, Windpower Monthly, 9 October 2017, https://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1446814/first-finnish-repowering-project-complete; Runyon, op. cit. note 138.905
  140. Germany repowered 338 turbines with a total capacity of 1,008.15 MW, from UL DEWI, “Wind energy use in Germany – Status 31.12.2017”, pp. 3, 7, https://www.dewi.de/dewi_res/fileadmin/pdf/statistics/Statistic_2017_Germany.pdf; Germany repowered 952 MW of capacity, the United Kingdom repowered 18 MW, and Portugal repowered 10 MW, from WindEurope, op. cit. note 6.906
  141. Ray, op. cit. note 138; Lyndsey Gilpin, “Aging wind farms are repowering with longer blades, more efficient turbines”, Inside Climate News, 28 March 2018, https://insideclimatenews.org/news/27032018/wind-power-blades-capacity-clean-energy-technology-jobs-ge-siemens-leeward-midamerican-repowering; “Leeward repowers two Texas wind farms to 136 MW”, Power Engineering, 16 January 2018, http://www.power-eng.com/articles/2018/01/leeward-repowers-two-texas-wind-farms-to-136-mw.html; Neil Ford, “US wind repowering growth hinges on fresh turbine, operation gains”, New Energy Update, 31 January 2018, http://newenergyupdate.com/wind-energy-update/us-wind-repowering-growth-hinges-fresh-turbine-operations-gains;Brian Eckhouse, “Wind farms of a certain age eyeing surgery to extend lives”, Bloomberg, 26 October 2017, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-10-26/wind-farms-of-a-certain-age-eyeing-surgery-to-extend-lifespans. 907
  142. AWEA, op. cit. note 49, p. 1. The United States partially repowered 1,996 MW of capacity (1,229 units) in 2017, from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 100, p. 23, https://fti-intelligencestore.com/index.php?route=download/main&download_id=159. 908
  143. Stine Jacobsen, “U.S. wind concerns ease as Trump cabinet calls on Denmark to help boost offshore output”, Reuters, 26 October 2017, http://af.reuters.com/article/africaTech/idAFL8N1N05MG; Sawyer, op. cit. note 106; Stori, op. cit. note 83.909
  144. Craig Richard, “Siemens Gamesa opens Taiwanese office”, Windpower Offshore, 6 December 2017, https://www.windpoweroffshore.com/article/1452150/siemens-gamesa-opens-taiwanese-office; “Enercon opens branch in Taiwan”, Sun & Wind Energy, 27 October 2017, http://www.sunwindenergy.com/wind-energy-press-releases/enercon-opens-branch-taiwan. Dong Energy also opened a US office, from “Dong opens Boston home”, reNEWS, 28 April 2017, http://renews.biz/106868/dong-opens-boston-home/. 910
  145. See, for example, David Weston et al., “Investing in new wind-power projects pays off for utilities”, Windpower Monthly, 1 March 2018, https://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1457918/investing-new-wind-power-projects-pays-off-utilities; David Weston, “Enel enters Russia but Fortum dominates auction”, Windpower Monthly, 15 June 2017, http://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1436585/enel-enters-russia-fortum-dominates-auction; “Corrected – French wind power sector to consolidate further – EDF”, Reuters, 5 July 2017, http://af.reuters.com/article/africaTech/idAFL8N1JW3TD; “EDF acquires offshore wind farm operations and maintenance specialist”,Renewable Energy World, 6 July 2017, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2017/07/edf-acquires-offshore-wind-farm-operations-and-maintenance-specialist.html; “Dong Energy links up with developer of Canadian offshore wind project”, Renewables Now, 13 September 2017, https://renewablesnow.com/news/dong-energy-links-up-with-developer-of-canadian-offshore-wind-project-583244/; “European offshore wind players look to China for growth”, BNEF, 31 July 2017, https://about.bnef.com/blog/european-offshore-wind-players-look-china-growth/.911
  146. “DONG Energy to sell oil, gas business to Ineos for $1.3 billion”, Reuters, 24 May 2017, http://uk.reuters.com/article/us-dong-energy-m-a-idUKKBN18K0OB; Ørsted, “Let’s create a world entirely on green energy – Ørsted: A new beginning”, https://orsted.com/en/About-us/About-orsted/About-our-name-change, viewed 15 March 2018; Ørsted, “Our vision and values”, https://orsted.com/en/About-us/About-orsted/Our-vision-and-values, viewed 17 April 2018; Ørsted, “A world that runs entirely on green energy”, https://orsted.com/en/Sustainability/Our-priorities/A-world-that-runs-entirely-on-green-energy, viewed 17 April 2018.912
  147. Nerijus Adomaitis, “Vattenfall to invest $1.9 bln in wind power in 2017-2018”, Reuters, 28 March 2017, http://af.reuters.com/article/commoditiesNews/idAFL5N1H51ZD.913
  148. Craig Richard, “Rosatom launches wind power subsidiary”, Windpower Monthly, 18 September 2017, http://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1444914/rosatom-launches-wind-power-subsidary; Melanie Poort, “Lagerwey technology used to power up Russian wind industry”, Lagerwey, 19 June 2017, https://www.lagerwey.com/blog/2017/06/19/lagerwey-technology-used-to-power-up-russian-wind-industry/. For other industry developments in the Russian Federation, see GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 12, and Stefan Gsänger and Roman Denisov, Perspectives of the Wind Energy Market in Russia (Bonn: WWEA, March 2017), http://www.wwindea.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/170612-FES-Windenergie-en-print.pdf.914
  149. Diane Bailey, “Cheap power, brutal competition”, Windpower Monthly, 1 May 2017, http://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1431447/cheap-power-brutal-competition.915
  150. Jess Shankleman, “Big oil replaces rigs with wind turbines”, Bloomberg, 22 March 2017, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-03-23/oil-majors-take-a-plunge-in-industry-that-may-hurt-fossil-fuel; Jennifer Runyon, “Oil and gas companies discuss diversification at offshore wind executive summit”, Renewable Energy World, 9 August 2017, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2017/08/oil-and-gas-companies-discuss-diversification-at-the-offshore-wind-executive-summit.html; Sudip Kar-Gupta, “Total steps up renewables drive with EREN, GreenFlex deals”, Reuters, 19 September 2017, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-eren-m-a-total/total-steps-up-renewables-drive-with-eren-greenflex-deals-idUSKCN1BU0OC.916
  151. Shankleman, op. cit. note 50; Runyon, op. cit. note 50.917
  152. Europe from Shankleman, op. cit. note 50; United States from Erin Ailworth, “Energy suppliers find fresh lift from offshore wind”, Wall Street Journal, 5 August 2017, https://www.wsj.com/articles/energy-suppliers-find-fresh-lift-from-offshore-wind-1501930801.918
  153. See, for example, Ryan Wiser et al., 2016 Wind Technologies Market Report (Washington, DC: US DOE, August 2017), p. vi, https://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2017/08/f35/2016_Wind_Technologies_Market_Report_0.pdf; Deutsche Windguard, Status of Land-based…, op. cit. note 37, p. 3.919
  154. The seven companies are Enercon, Vestas, Nordex Acciona, GE, Siemens Gamesa, Goldwind and Envision, from FTI Intelligence, op. cit. note 3. See also: Veselina Petrova, “Eno Energy unveils 4.8-MW wind turbine”, Renewables Now, 13 September 2017, https://renewablesnow.com/news/eno-energy-unveils-48-mw-wind-turbine-583171/; “GE unveils onshore giant”, reNEWS, 12 September 2017, http://renews.biz/108440/ge-unveils-onshore-giant/; “Goldwind unveils 4MW newbie”, reNEWS, 15 November 2017, http://renews.biz/109159/goldwind-unveils-4mw-newbie/; Eize de Vries, “Nordex takes Delta series over 4MW”, Windpower Monthly, 1 September 2017, http://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1443226/nordex-takes-delta-series-4mw; David Weston, “Vestas joins the 4MW class”, Windpower Monthly,31 July 2017, http://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1440491/vestas-joins-4mw-class. Average turbine size delivered to market (considering vendors who sold turbines with rated capacities of at least 200 kW per unit) was 2,404 MW in 2017, from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 100, p. 27, up 11.3% based on idem and on global average of 2,160 MW in 2016, from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 125, p. 26. Definition of platform from Sawyer, op. cit. note 14, and from Zhao, op. cit. note 6; and streamlining of processes, etc. from Siemens, “Wind turbine product platforms”, http://m.energy.siemens.com/mx/en/renewable-energy/wind-power/platforms/index.htm, viewed 27 March 2018; Siemens AG, The Offshore Workhorse – Redefined (Hamburg: 2013), p. 3, https://www.energy.siemens.com/hq/pool/hq/power-generation/wind-power/platform-brochures/S36-23804-G4-Offshore-8pp_ONLINE.pdf.920
  155. FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 100, p. 28. Averages were 3,091 MW in Europe, 2,805 MW in “other”, which included the Middle East and Commonwealth of Independent States countries (where nearly half of the new turbines installed were larger than 3 MW), 2,373 MW in North America, 2,318 in Latin America, 2,293 MW in Africa and 2,095 MW in Asia-Pacific, from idem. 921
  156. WindEurope, op. cit. note 11, p. 23. For example, onshore turbines in Denmark and Finland in 2017 had an average turbine rating of 3.4 MW, and less than 2 MW in Spain, from idem. The average installed power per unit onshore in Germany was close to 3 MW, from UL DEWI, op. cit. note 140, pp. 11-12.922
  157. Sawyer, op. cit. note 14; WindEurope, op. cit. note 11, p. 23.923
  158. WindEurope, Offshore Wind in Europe, op. cit. note 37, p. 7; Jillian Ambrose, “World’s largest wind turbines may double in size before 2024”, Telegraph (UK), 17 May 2017, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2017/05/16/worlds-largest-wind-turbines-may-double-size-2024/; Tomas Kellner, “Making waves: GE unveils plans to build an offshore wind turbine the size of a skyscraper, the world’s most powerful”, GE Reports, 1 March 2018, https://www.ge.com/reports/making-waves-ge-unveils-plans-build-offshore-wind-turbine-size-skyscraper-worlds-powerful/; Ryan Wiser et al., “The future of wind energy, Part 3: Reducing wind energy costs through increased turbine size: is the sky the limit?” Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, 1 November 2016,https://emp.lbl.gov/news/future-wind-energy-part-3-reducing-wind. 924
  159. WindEurope, op. cit. note 6; GE, “GE announces Haliade-X, the world’s most powerful offshore wind turbine”, press release (Paris: 1 March 2018), https://www.genewsroom.com/press-releases/ge-announces-haliade-x-worlds-most-powerful-offshore-wind-turbine-284260; “Offshore wind success continues through 2017”, op. cit. note 118; Peter Nyegaard Jensen, “Offshore wind: big is beautiful”, The Switch, 28 February 2018, http://theswitch.com/2018/02/28/offshore-wind-big-beautiful/.925
  160. WindEurope, Offshore Wind in Europe, op. cit. note 37, pp. 7, 15. Increase in 2017 based on average size of 4.8 MW in 2016, from idem.926
  161. “Goldwind unveils 6-MW-plus offshore wind platform”, Renewables Now, 16 November 2017, https://renewablesnow.com/news/goldwind-unveils-6-mw-plus-offshore-wind-platform-591288/; MHI Vestas Offshore Wind, “World’s most powerful wind turbine once again smashes 24 hour power generation record as 9 MW wind turbine is launched”, press release (Aarhus, Denmark: 26 January 2017), http://www.mhivestasoffshore.com/new-24-hour-record/; Joshua S. Hill, “MHI Vestas Offshore unveils 9.5 megawatt wind turbine”, CleanTechnica, 8 June 2017, https://cleantechnica.com/2017/06/08/mhi-vestas-offshore-unveils-9-5-mw-wind-turbine/; MHI Vestas Offshore Wind, “Leading edge technology – the V164-0.5 MWTM turbine”, http://www.mhivestasoffshore.com/innovations/,viewed 19 March 2018; “Senvion confirms 10MW giant”, reNEWS, 24 May 2017, http://renews.biz/107181/senvion-confirms-10mw-giant/; Jess Shankleman et al., “Gigantic wind turbines signal era of subsidy-free green power”, Bloomberg, 21 April 2017, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-04-20/gigantic-wind-turbines-signal-era-of-subsidy-free-green-power; Stine Jacobsen and Vera Eckert, “Insight – Wind power’s big bet: turbines taller than skyscrapers”, Reuters, 27 June 2017, http://af.reuters.com/article/commoditiesNews/idAFL8N1JJ2OL.927
  162. GE, “GE announces Haliade-X, the world’s most powerful offshore wind turbine”, press release (Paris: 1 March 2018), https://www.genewsroom.com/press-releases/ge-announces-haliade-x-worlds-most-powerful-offshore-wind-turbine-284260.928
  163. Tino Andresen, “Offshore wind farms offer subsidy-free power for first time”, Renewable Energy World, 18 April 2017, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2017/04/offshore-wind-farms-offer-subsidy-free-power-for-first-time.html; Shankleman et al., op. cit. note 161; Jacobsen and Eckert, op. cit. note 161.929
  164. Significantly higher capacity factors from Wiser et al., op. cit. note 151, p. vii; Steel, op. cit. note 108; opportunities from IEA, World Energy Outlook 2015 (Paris: 2015), p. 346. 930
  165. Wiser et al., op. cit. note 153, p. vii.931
  166. Data for 2015 and 2016 from ABEEólica, “Dados mensais”, February 2017, http://www.abeeolica.org.br/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/Dados-Mensais-ABEEolica-02.2017.pdf, and provided by Camila Ramos, Clean Energy Latin America, São Paulo, personal communication with REN21, 27 April 2017; data for 2017 from ABEEólica and provided by Ramos, 6 March 2018.932
  167. See, for example, Roger Andrews, “UK offshore wind capacity factors – a semi-statistical analysis”, Energy Matters, 6 October 2017, http://euanmearns.com/uk-offshore-wind-capacity-factors-a-semi-statistical-analysis/; “Germany’s offshore wind capacity factors”, Energy Numbers, 27 October 2017, http://energynumbers.info/germanys-offshore-wind-capacity-factors; “Capacity factors at Danish offshore wind farms”, Energy Numbers, 21 March 2018, http://energynumbers.info/capacity-factors-at-danish-offshore-wind-farms; “UK offshore wind capacity factors”, Energy Numbers, 18 January 2018, http://energynumbers.info/uk-offshore-wind-capacity-factors. During 2017, the highest monthly capacity factor was for offshore wind in Germany during February (67.9%), from David Meyer, “Europe’s wind power industry is blowing up offshore”, Fortune,6 February 2018, http://fortune.com/2018/02/06/europe-wind-energy-capacity/. During the first three months of operation (albeit, the windiest season), November 2017 through January 2018, Hywind’s average capacity factor was 65%, from Statoil, op. cit. note 79, and from Matthew Klippenstein, “World’s first floating offshore wind farm achieves 65% capacity factor after 3 months”, Greentech Media, 1 March 2018, https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/worlds-first-floating-offshore-wind-farm-65-capacity-factor. 933
  168. MAKE Consulting, cited in Joshua S. Hill, “Look out for 4 megawatt onshore and 12 megawatt offshore wind turbines, concludes MAKE”, CleanTechnica, 22 June 2017, https://cleantechnica.com/2017/06/22/look-4-mw-onshore-12-mw-offshore-wind-turbines-make/; FTI Intelligence, “Vestas returns to no. 1 spot in global wind turbine supplier ranking in 2016”, press release (London: 20 February 2017). See, for example, Vestas, “Products”, https://www.vestas.com/en/products/turbines, viewed 20 March 2017; GE, “GE expands onshore wind portfolio with North American version of new 3.4 MW wind turbines”, press release (New Orleans, LA: 23 May 2016), https://www.genewsroom.com/press-releases/ge-expands-onshore-wind-portfolio-north-american-version-new-34-mw-wind-turbines.934
  169. Ivan Shumkov, “Senvion starts selling new 3-MW wind turbine models”, Renewables Now, 12 September 2017, https://renewablesnow.com/news/senvion-starts-selling-new-3-mw-wind-turbine-models-583035/; David Weston and Diane Bailey, “AWEA 2017: Senvion unveils 3.6MW for North American market”, Windpower Monthly, 23 May 2017, http://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1434486/awea-2017-senvion-unveils-36mw-north-american-market; “Senvion bar raised in N America”, reNEWS, 10 April 2017, http://renews.biz/108709/senvion-bar-raised-in-n-america/; “Nordex makes 3MW India play”, reNEWS, 21 April 2017, http://renews.biz/106770/nordex-makes-3mw-india-play/;“Nordex extends range for low and medium wind sites”, Windpower Monthly, 5 April 2017, http://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1429644/nordex-extends-range-low-medium-wind-sites; Craig Richard, “Vestas’ V120 turbine available in China”, Windpower Monthly, 16 October 2017, http://www.windpower-monthly.com/article/1447464/vestas-v120-turbine-available-china; Siemens Gamesa, “Siemens Gamesa launches new wind power solutions: new geared turbine SG 4.2-145 for onshore, SG 8.0-167 DD for offshore, that increase the annual energy production (AEP) by 20%”, press release (Madrid: 28 November 2017), http://www.siemensgamesa.com/en/communication/news/siemens-gamesa-launches-new-wind-power-solutions-new-geared-turbine-sg-42-145-for-onshore-sg-80-167-dd-for-offshore-that-increase-the-annual-ener.html?idCategoria=0&fechaDesde=&especifica=0&texto=&idSeccion=0&fechaHasta,viewed December 2017. 935
  170. FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 112.936
  171. Aaron Ricadela, “GE unveils bid data tools for industry amid software shift”, Bloomberg, 13 June 2017, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-06-13/ge-unveils-big-data-tools-for-industry-amid-software-shift; Jennifer Runyon, “Building it better: how wind EPCs are driving down wind energy costs”, Renewable Energy World, 23 May 2017, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/print/volume-20/issue-3/features/cover-story/building-it-better-how-wind-epcs-are-driving-down-wind-energy-cost.html.937
  172. David Weston, “Drones attracting increasing market attention”, Windpower Monthly, 28 February 2017, http://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1425698/drones-attracting-increasing-market-attention; Katie Fehrenbacher, “How drones are lowering the cost of clean energy”, Green Biz, 15 March 2018, https://www.greenbiz.com/article/how-drones-are-lowering-cost-clean-energy. 938
  173. Chris Hansford, “Eliminating the dreaded downtime in wind farm operations”, Renewable Energy World, November/December 2017, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/print/volume-20/issue-6/features/wind/eliminating-the-dreaded-downtime-in-wind-farm-operations.html. 939
  174. Saumy Prateek, “Siemens Gamesa wins contracts for 160 MW grid-connected solar projects in India”, Mercom India, 9 February 2018, https://mercomindia.com/siemens-gamesa-160-mw-solar/; Vanessa Dezem, “Brazil’s largest wind company has big plans to dominate solar”, Bloomberg, 13 December 2017, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-12-13/brazil-s-largest-wind-company-has-big-plans-to-dominate-solar; several companies focused on hybrid projects, from FTI Consulting, op. cit. note 112. Leading global turbine manufacturers – including Vestas, Siemens Gamesa, GE and Goldwind – plan to launch utility-scale hybrid and fully-integrated (wind power-plus-solar PV-plus-storage) projects in 2018, from idem.940
  175. Joshua S. Hill, “Siemens Gamesa awarded first hybrid wind-solar project in India”, CleanTechnica, 26 September 2017, https://cleantechnica.com/2017/09/26/siemens-gamesa-awarded-first-hybrid-wind-solar-project-india/; Joshua S. Hill, “Construction begins on Australia’s $160 million Kennedy Energy Park”, CleanTechnica, 12 December 2017, https://cleantechnica.com/2017/12/12/construction-begins-australias-160-million-kennedy-energy-park/; Kennedy Energy Park, “43 MW of wind | 15 MW of solar panels | 2MW/4MWh of battery storage”, https://kennedyenergypark.com.au/, viewed 20 April 2018.941
  176. Steel, op. cit. note 108. For example, in 2017, US offshore developer Deepwater Wind announced plans to install an offshore project combined with a Tesla battery system, from David Weston, “Vestas confirms Tesla joint project”, Windpower Monthly, 1 September 2017, http://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1443471/vestas-confirms-tesla-joint-project.942
  177. See, for example, William Steel, “Can storage expand wind’s share of the energy mix?” Renewable Energy World, 11 October 2017, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2017/10/can-storage-expand-wind-s-share-of-the-energy-mix.html; Weston, op. cit. note 176; Anna Hirtenstein, “Vestas joins with Tesla to combine wind turbines with batteries”, Renewable Energy World, 1 September 2017, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2017/09/vestas-joins-with-tesla-to-combine-wind-turbines-with-batteries.html; Hill, “Construction begins…”, op. cit. note 175. 943
  178. Siemens Gamesa, “Start of construction in Hamburg-Altenwerder: Siemens Gamesa to install FES heat-storage for wind energy”, press release (Hamburg: 30 November 2017), http://www.siemensgamesa.com/en/communication/news/start-of-construction-in-hamburg-altenwerder-siemens-gamesa-to-install-fes-heat-storage-for-wind-energy.html?idCategoria=0fechaDesde=especifica=0texto=idSeccion=0fechaHasta, viewed December 2017; “Siemens Gamesa starts building wind-to-heat storage in Hamburg”, Renewables Now, 4 December 2017, https://renewablesnow.com/news/siemens-gamesa-starts-building-wind-to-heat-storage-in-hamburg-593285/; Max Bögl, “Highest wind turbines in the world go online”, press release (Sengenthal, Germany: 18 December 2017), http://www.mbrenewables.com/en/highest-wind-turbines-in-the-world-go-online/; Brian Parkin, “Max Boegl builds world’s tallest wind turbine with storage unit”, BNA News, 27 October 2017, https://bnanews.bna.com/environment-and-energy/max-boegl-builds-worlds-tallest-wind-turbine-with-storage-unit; Melanie Poort, “First hydrogen wind turbine for sustainable fuel to be sited in the Netherlands”, Lagerwey, 18 October 2017, https://www.lagerwey.com/blog/2017/10/18/de-eerste-waterstofmolen-voor-duurzame-brandstof-komt-in-nederland/; Plamena Tisheva, “Lagerwey, partners to build pioneer hydrogen wind turbine”, Renewables Now, 18 October 2017, https://renewablesnow.com/news/lagerwey-partners-to-build-pioneer-hydrogen-wind-turbine-587562/; “This is the Microsoft deal that will boost wind-turbine battery tech”, Renewable Energy World, 10 October 2017, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2017/10/this-is-the-first-wind-turbine-battery-deployment-in-europe.html.944
  179. Nordex, “Higher yield even in sound-optimised operating mode: Nordex offers new sound concept, now also for existing turbines”, press release (Hamburg: 23 November 2017), http://www.nordex-online.com/en/news-press/news-detail.html?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=2938&tx_ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=1&cHash=58bbd5f8b8; “Vestas unveils tower vision”, reNEWS, 2 March 2017, http://renews.biz/106118/vestas-unveils-tower-vision/; Craig Richard, “Lagerwey tests world-first ‘climbing crane’”, Windpower Monthly, 30 August 2017, http://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1443191/lagerwey-tests-world-first-climbing-crane.945
  180. Navigant Research, “Market data: Wind blade materials demand forecast”, 2017, https://www.navigantresearch.com/research/market-data-wind-blade-materials-demand-forecast. 946
  181. Viable and economically attractive, from WindEurope, “Floating offshore wind vision statement” (Brussels: June 2017), https://windeurope.org/wp-content/uploads/files/about-wind/reports/Floating-offshore-statement.pdf; stronger and more consistent from Statoil, “World class performance by world’s first floating wind farm”, press release (Stavanger, Norway: 15 February 2018), https://www.statoil.com/en/news/15feb2018-world-class-performance.html; best winds rather than suitable topography, from Sawyer, op. cit. note 14.947
  182. Statoil, “Hywind – the world’s leading floating offshore wind solution”, https://www.statoil.com/en/what-we-do/hywind-where-the-wind-takes-us.html, viewed 22 April 2018; Statoil, “How Hywind works”, https://www.statoil.com/en/what-we-do/hywind-where-the-wind-takes-us/hywind-up-close-and-personal.html, viewed 1 April 2018; Megan Geuss, “First floating wind farm, built by offshore oil company, delivers electricity”, Ars Technica, 18 October 2017, https://arstechnica.com/science/2017/10/first-floating-wind-farm-built-by-offshore-oil-company-delivers-electricity/. Hywind is designed for projects in depths up to 800 metres, from Statoil, “World’s first floating wind farm has started production”, press release (Stavanger, Norway: 18 October 2017), https://www.statoil.com/en/news/worlds-first-floating-wind-farm-started-production.html. Also in 2017, US-based VL Offshore unveiled a floating offshore foundation for depths up to 1,000 metres and turbines 3 MW and larger, from “VL offshore unveils new floating offshore wind turbine foundation”, Renewable Energy World, 8 August 2017, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2017/08/vl-offshore-unveils-new-floating-offshore-wind-turbine-foundation.html; Stiesdal Offshore won funds from Danish government for development of its TetraSpar floating wind concept, from Dariu Snieckus, “Stiesdal TetraSpar floating wind concept lands further finance”, RECHARGE, 19 October 2017, http://www.rechargenews.com/wind/1368188/stiesdal-tetraspar-floating-wind-concept-lands-further-finance. 948
  183. Steve Sawyer, GWEC, personal communication with REN21, 19 June 2017; EurObserv’ER, op. cit. note 1, p. 17.949
  184. Moving beyond demonstration and investment from Steve Sawyer, GWEC, personal communications with REN21, 19 June 2017 and 8 February 2018, and from WindEurope, op. cit. note 181. Pipeline of projects in France, Ireland, Portugal and especially the United Kingdom, from WindEurope, “Floating offshore wind comes of age with break-through pipeline of projects”, press release (Brussels: 8 June 2017), https://windeurope.org/newsroom/press-releases/floating-offshore-wind-comes-of-age-with-break-through-pipeline-of-projects/. In addition, a partnership was formed in 2017 or early 2018 to deliver 2.5 GW of floating wind capacity off the coast of Chinese Taipei, from Craig Richard, “Floating specialists target 2.5GW Taiwan pipeline”, Windpower Offshore, 4 January 2018, https://www.windpoweroffshore.com/article/1453727/floating-specialists-target-25gw-taiwan-pipeline.950
  185. Sawyer, op. cit. note 183; Plamena Tisheva, “Offshore wind costs falling fast – BNEF”, Renewables Now, 1 November 2016, https://renewables.seenews.com/news/offshore-wind-costs-falling-fast-bnef-545227; Susan Kraemer, “How DONG Energy bid offshore wind at just 8 cents”, Renewable Energy World, 14 September 2016, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2016/09/how-dong-energy-bid-offshore-wind-at-just-8-cents.html; Jan Behrendt Ibsoe, “Editorial”, DEWI Magazin, March 2017, pp. 3-4, http://www.dewi.de/dewi_res/fileadmin/pdf/publications/Magazin_50/DM_50_lowres.pdf.951
  186. Sawyer, op. cit. note 183; Zhao, op. cit. note 6.952
  187. Agreement in 2016 from “Offshore wind can match coal, gas for value by 2025-RWE, E.ON, GE, others”, Reuters, 6 June 2016, http://af.reuters.com/article/energyOilNews/idAFL8N18Y16U?sp=true; pledge in 2017 from Jess Shankleman, “Europe is about to go into overdrive with offshore wind power”, Bloomberg, 6 June 2017, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-06-06/europe-sees-fivefold-boost-to-offshore-wind-under-60-gw-pledge.953
  188. Shankleman, op. cit. note 187.954
  189. Steve Sawyer, “Global wind energy insight: offshore breakthrough”, Renewable Energy World, 21 June 2017, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/ugc/articles/2017/06/20/offshore-breakthrough.html; Sawyer, op. cit. note 106; Stori, op. cit. note 83.
  190. “US jack-up takes shape”, reNEWS, 14 August 2017, http://renews.biz/108128/us-jack-up-takes-shape/; “US duo unveils jack-up plan”, reNEWS, 29 June 2017, http://renews.biz/107649/us-duo-unveil-jack-up-plan/; “Dutch designs on US jack-up”, reNEWS, 19 October 2017, http://renews.biz/108863/dutch-designs-on-us-jack-up/.956
  191. WWEA, op. cit. note 93, p. 5.957
  192. Chinese Wind Energy Equipment Association, “The development of Chinese small wind generators”, WWEA Wind Bulletin, no. 2 (September 2016), pp. 6-7, http://www.wwindea.org/wwea-bulletin-issue-2-2016-small-wind-special/; Orrell et al., op. cit. note 93, p. i; Navigant Research, “Market data: small and medium wind turbines: demand drivers, market trends and challenges, and global market forecasts”, 2017, http://www.navigantresearch.com/research/market-data-small-and-medium-wind-turbines, viewed 17 March 2017. In the United States, 31 companies reported sales in 2012, 16 companies in 2013, 11 in 2014, and 10 (8 domestic manufacturers and 2 importers) in 2015; in addition, foreign manufacturers have lost interest in the United States due to the expiration of important federal incentives, all from Orrellet al., op. cit. note 95, p. ii.958
  193. In 2017, Chinese manufacturers produced an estimated 63,000 small- and medium-scale wind energy turbines, with a year-on-year reduction of 24.7% compared with 2016. Production capacity was down 35.8% relative to 2016, to 49.7 MW, and the production value was down 26.9% to CNY 614 million. Product delivery was down 19.9% from 2016, the deficit of the whole industry increased, related tax revenue declined, as did the number of employees. All from Sara Tang, Chinese Renewable Energy Industries Association, personal communication with REN21, April 2018.959
  194. Orrell et al., op. cit. note 93, p. 6.960
  195. MAKE Consulting, cited in Hill, op. cit. note 168.961
  196. Amy Kover, “Comeback kids: this company gives old wind turbine blades a second life”, GE, 23 June 2017, https://www.ge.com/reports/comeback-kids-company-gives-old-wind-turbine-blades-second-life/.962
  197. “Dong completes Vindeby removal”, reNEWS, 6 September 2017, http://renews.biz/108374/dong-completes-vindeby-removal/.963
  198. “EDPR pilots blade recycling”, reNEWS, 1 September 2017, http://renews.biz/108338/edpr-pilots-blade-recycling/.964
  199. “European circular economy project researches wind turbine blade recycling”, Waste Management World, 20 March 2018, https://waste-management-world.com/a/european-circular-economy-project-researches-wind-turbine-blade-recycling. See also Ecobulk, “Ecobulk”, http://www.ecobulk.eu/public/ecobulk-project, viewed 30 March 2018. 965
  200. Sidebar 2 and Table 3 based on IRENA, Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2017 (Abu Dhabi: 2018), http://irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2018/Jan/IRENA_2017_Power_Costs_2018.pdf.966