RENEWABLES 2023 GLOBAL STATUS REPORT

Renewables in Energy Supply

Geothermal Power and Heat

Key Facts
Geothermal Power and Heat

  • New geothermal power generating capacity of 0.2 GW came online in 2022, bringing the cumulative global total to around 14.6 GW.
  • Global geothermal power capacity additions were one-third lower in 2022 than in 2021, and well below the five-year average of 0.5 GW since 2017.
  • Geothermal power capacity was added in Indonesia, Japan, Kenya, Nicaragua, the Philippines, and the United States, with most countries adding only single, small units.
  • Geothermal direct-use (excluding heat pumps) grew nearly an estimated 10% in 2022, to around 155 TWh (560 petajoules, PJ).
  • China is the world's fastest-growing geothermal heat market, and other key markets are Türkiye, Iceland and Japan. Together, these four countries are estimated to account for nearly 90% of global geothermal direct use in 2022.

Geothermal energy has a somewhat unique place among renewable energy technologies. On one hand, it represents a tiny fraction of the global energy balance and is dwarfed by other renewable energy sources. One the other hand, it can represent a valuable and even critical component of the energy mix in a relatively few locations around the world. While geothermal energy i is theoretically ubiquitous, it can be hard to reach in most places other than where the Earth's lithospheric plates meet. New technologies are being developed to make this energy source more economically accessible in more locations.

Geothermal energy is derived from thermal and pressure differentials in the Earth's crust, providing direct thermal energy or electricity by use of steam turbines. In 2022, geothermal electricity generation totalled an estimated 101 TWh, and direct useful thermal energy supply totalled an estimated 155 TWh (560 PJ). 1 In some instances, geothermal plants produce both electricity and heat for thermal applications (co-generation), but this option depends on location-specific thermal demand coinciding with the geothermal resource. 2

Geothermal Power

For electricity generation, new geothermal power capacity introduced in 2022 was 0.2 GW ii , bringing the global total to around 14.6 GW. 3 This was one-third less than the additions in 2021 and well below the five-year average of 0.5 GW since 2017. 4 Capacity was added in Indonesia, Japan, Kenya, Nicaragua, the Philippines and the United States. 5 (See Figure 17.)

The top 10 countries for geothermal power capacity at the end of 2022 were the United States, Indonesia, the Philippines, Türkiye, New Zealand, Kenya, Mexico, Italy, Iceland and Japan. 6 However, capacity values are subject to high uncertainty due to a lack of standardised reporting criteria. 7

Kenya had the largest geothermal power capacity addition in 2022 as it completed the 86 MW Unit 6 at the Olkaria I complex. 8 The addition raised the country's geothermal capacity to 0.95 GW, representing 42% of Kenya's total generating capacity. 9 Kenya is also pursuing upgrades to existing generating units, including the original three units (45 MW) at Olkaria I, which was the first geothermal power capacity commissioned in Africa, in 1980. 10 Total planned upgrades are expected to increase capacity by another 123 MW. 11

FIGURE 17.

Geothermal Power Capacity and Additions, Top 10 Countries and Rest of World, 2022

 FIGURE 17.

Source: See endnote 5 for this section.

The United States remains the global leader in installed geothermal capacity, although annual capacity additions in recent years have mostly just maintained overall output. 12 During the five-year period of 2016-2021, net capacity increased 3.2% while generation grew less than 1%. 13 Three projects were completed in 2022, including the addition of 13 MW (net) at the Ormat Technologies (United States) Tungsten Mountain facility in Nevada. 14 In California, Ormat also completed the 30 MW (17 MW net) Casa Diablo-IV. 15 Geothermal power in the United States continues to supply around 0.4% of US net electricity generation, as much as 17 TWh iii in 2022. 16 In early 2023, a US government study determined that large-scale expansion of geothermal power in the country would depend on large future cost reductions of enhanced geothermal systems iv (EGS). 17

Indonesia completed three projects in 2022, adding 55.5 MW. 18 On the island of Flores, the first 5 MW unit of the Sokoria development was inaugurated, followed by the 50 MW Unit 3 at the Sorik Marapi project on North Sumatra. 19 On the North Sulawesi site of the 120 MW Lahendong complex (developed in stages from 2001 through 2016), a 0.5 MW binary-cycle v unit was installed. 20

During the five-year period 2017-2022, geothermal capacity in Indonesia grew nearly 30% (average of 106 MW annually), from 1.8 GW to more than 2.3 GW. 21 In 2021, geothermal power generation was 15.9 TWh, or 5.5% of the country's total grid supply. 22 With significant coal reserves, Indonesia's 6.8 GW of total new power capacity (9.1% growth to 81.2 GW in 2022) continued to be dominated by fossil thermal plants. 23 The government hopes to reverse that pattern and see renewable capacity outpace other sources this decade. 24

In late 2022, Nicaragua saw the commissioning of a 10.4 MW (net) binary-cycle unit at the existing San Jacinto Geothermal Project. 25 Originally built to 10 MW in 2005, the San Jacinto facility was later expanded to 72 MW in 2012 (operating at 65 MW in 2022). 26

The Philippines ranks third globally for total installed geothermal power capacity at 1.9 GW (1.8 GW of net dependable capacity). 27 No capacity had been added since 2018 until a small 3.6 MW binary-cycle unit was added in 2022 at the Mount Apo geothermal facility in Mindanao. 28 The new unit utilises residual thermal energy contained in the geothermal brine from the existing 103 MW plant, producing incremental electricity without the need for additional drilling, similar to the smallest new unit in Indonesia. 29

In an effort to invigorate investment in geothermal energy, the Philippines government opened the sector up to full foreign project ownership in 2020 – a provision still denied to other renewable energy technologies. 30 Incremental resource development is made more difficult by high costs and exploration risks, while some potential projects face permitting hurdles on account of impacts on both ecologically sensitive areas and rural populations. 31

Japan was the only other country to add capacity in 2022, installing a 150 kW binary-cycle power module at a thermal bath facility in the Kumamoto region. 32 Mimicking a nearby unit in operation since 2020, the module taps the 110°C well supply to generate electricity before the geothermal waters are utilised for bathing. 33

Despite being the most active geothermal market over the last decade, Türkiye added no new geothermal power plants in 2022, although its stated installed capacity (1.7 GW) was 15 MW higher than at the end of 2021. 34 In the 11 years from 2008 through 2019, capacity grew from 30 MW to 1.5 GW, with the bulk of that coming online since 2015 (1.1 GW). 35 Annual additions then contracted to 99 MW in 2020 and 63 MW in 2021. 36

Türkiye's geothermal industry attributes the stagnation to the lack of government support, specifically a weakened feed-in tariff (FIT) that is no longer pegged to the US dollar since 2021, but also the currency risk of weakening Turkish lira. 37 In early 2023, the Turkish government indicated pending revisions to the FIT that would reflect current conditions. 38

Geothermal Heat

Worldwide, the capacity for geothermal direct use vi – direct extraction of geothermal energy for thermal applications – totalled an estimated 38 gigawatts-thermal (GWth) in 2022. 39 Based on reported values for 2019 and the preceding five-year growth rate, the estimated annual capacity increase in 2022 was 2.7 GWth. 40 By the same estimation, geothermal energy use for thermal applications is likely to have grown by 14 TWh during 2022 to an estimated 155 TWh (560 PJ). 41

The top 4 countries are estimated to account for nearly 90% of the global geothermal heat market.

The top countries for geothermal direct use in 2022 were (in descending order) China, Türkiye, Iceland and Japan. 42 (See Figure 18.)

Geothermal direct use is highly concentrated in those four key markets (estimated to represent 87% of the global total in 2022) and is further localised within each country. 43 Direct use in other countries includes (in descending order) New Zealand, Hungary, the Russian Federation, Italy, the United States and Brazil. 44

FIGURE 18.

Geothermal Direct Use, Estimates for Top 4 Countries and Rest of World, 2022

 FIGURE 18.

Source: See endnote 42 for this section.

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China is the world's fastest-growing geothermal heat market, with annual growth exceeding 21% during 2015-2019. 45 Based on this trend, China's use of geothermal heat has likely grown from a reported 197 PJ in 2019 to around 355 PJ in 2022, which would represent nearly two-thirds of the estimated current global use. 46 In 2022, China's 14th Five-Year Plan for energy efficiency and green building development emphasised continued expansion of geothermal energy use for space heating. 47

In Türkiye, reported geothermal heat use grew 3.8% annually on average during 2015-2019, and at that rate it may have reached at least 61 PJ in 2022. 48 For space heating alone, installed capacity grew from just over 1 GW in 2019 to 1.5 GW in 2020, suggesting even more robust growth recently. 49

Iceland ranks third globally in the use of geothermal heat. 50 As of 2021, annual geothermal heat consumption was around 35 PJ, from an installed capacity of around 2.5 GWth. 51 Direct geothermal supply meets 90% of space heating demand in Iceland. 52 Available geothermal resources for direct use far exceed current utilisation. 53 Therefore, incremental use will be determined by population growth and increases in economic activity, with the exception of any new resources found in less geothermally active parts of the country where populations have relied on electricity for space heating (either geothermal or hydropower) or even fossil fuels. 54

Geothermal heat developments in continental Europe are concentrated in a few areas where deep heat reservoirs exist. These include, in particular, southern regions of Germany (Bavaria), the Paris region of France and various locations in Hungary, Italy, the Netherlands and Poland. Project exploration and development continued in 2022 in many locations.

In the Netherlands, the production of geothermal heat increased 6% in 2022, with 31 geothermal project locations with an annual production capacity of 6.4 PJ. 55 Even though new boreholes are added each year, the local geothermal industry considers progress to be slow, hampered by permit processing, the rigors of the drilling process, and a lack of adequate heat distribution networks to households and greenhouses. 56 Political, financial and social barriers also limit project development, with public acceptance becoming a more pressing concern. 57 As of late 2022, 70 projects were in various stages of development, with 19 advancing towards commencing heat production. 58 By early 2023, a new Mining Act was expected to support geothermal activities, allowing a state-owned enterprise to financially participate in projects as a non-operating partner. 59

Development of direct-use facilities in France continues in the Paris region (Île-de-France), as well as to the southwest in Aquitaine and to the east in Alsace. 60 Following the completion of three new geothermal facilities in the Paris suburbs in 2021, a new project was announced in 2022 for the municipality of Meudon. The plan is to displace 83% of the current gas-fired supply by 2026, to heat the equivalent of 7,600 homes. 61 The local distribution network also will be upgraded for greater efficiency and to accommodate the lower geothermal supply temperatures. 62

In Germany, no new geothermal plants came online in 2022. 63 However, the national government laid out a roadmap for achieving a 10-fold increase in geothermal heat utilisation by 2030 (10 TWh per year), which would entail building 100 additional geothermal projects in that time frame. 64 In Bavaria, local authorities outlined plans to meet one-quarter of heat demand in buildings with geothermal supply by 2050, expanding district heat networks as needed to connect thermal loads with expanding production areas. 65 Understanding the resource availability is critical to further development, and to that end, estimates of heat reservoirs in Germany were updated, indicating 20% higher heat flow than previously understood. 66 Work was under way during the year to expand geothermal heat supply and distribution networks in the Munich area. 67

In Vienna, Austria, the culmination of extensive research on the subsoil under the city paved the way for plans to commence exploratory drilling in 2023. 68 The city anticipates that the completion of its first geothermal plant in 2026 (estimated at 20 megawatts-thermal) would supply heat to 125,000 households. 69

Geothermal energy use can expand significantly through EGS, provided that dramatic cost reductions are achieved.

The high risk of failure in geothermal exploration led to some projects being put on hold. In Switzerland, drilling had begun at Lavey-les-Bains early in 2022 with hopes of completing the country's first hydrothermal project to produce both electricity and heat by 2023. While the technically challenging drilling was a success, it did not find sufficient flow of geothermal fluid to make the project viable. 70 In addition, two German projects met critical setbacks when drilling failed to find enough permeability and flow for commercial utilisation. 71

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Footnotes

i Here, the term refers mostly to energy derived from medium-to-high enthalpy (>100 degrees Celsius (°C)) hydrothermal and hot dry-rock resources, and typically at significant depth. Specifically, it does not include the renewable final energy output of near-surface, ground-source (or ground-coupled) heat pumps, sometimes referred to as “geothermal heat pumps”. (see Heat Pumps section.)

ii Net additions tend to be lower than the sum of new plants due to decommissioning or de-rating of existing capacity.

iii Generation data for geothermal power in the United States, as first reported, tend to be revised downward by the following year.

iv While conventional hydrothermal systems rely on sufficient heat, permeability and fluid to deliver energy to the surface, enhanced geothermal systems can be implemented where fluid and permeability are lacking. In an EGS, injecting fluid into the hot rock at great pressure creates fractures that allow fluid pathways to form, which can be used for an induced hydrothermal cycle.

v In a binary-cycle plant, which has become the most common design at plants built in recent years, the geothermal fluid heats and vaporises a separate working fluid (with a lower boiling point than water) that drives a turbine to generate electricity. Each fluid cycle is closed, and the geothermal fluid is re-injected into the heat reservoir. The binary cycle allows an effective and efficient extraction of heat for power generation from relatively low-temperature geothermal fluids. Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) binary geothermal plants use an organic working fluid, and the Kalina Cycle uses a non-organic working fluid. Conversely, geothermal steam can be used directly to drive the turbine, but this is more typical for higher-enthalpy applications.

vi Direct use refers here to deep geothermal resources, irrespective of scale, that use geothermal fluid directly (i.e., direct use) or by direct transfer via heat exchangers. It does not include the use of shallow geothermal resources, specifically those tapped with ground-source heat pumps. (see Heat Pumps section.)

  1. Estimates based on the following sources: power capacity data for Iceland, Indonesia, Kenya, Philippines, Türkiye and the United States from sources noted elsewhere in this section; for New Zealand from New Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment, “Electricity Statistics”, https://www.mbie.govt.nz/building-and-energy/energy-and-natural-resources/energy-statistics-and-modelling/energy-statistics/electricity-statistics, accessed April 2023; capacity data for other countries from International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), “Renewable Capacity Statistics 2023”, March 2023, https://www.irena.org/Publications/2023/Mar/Renewable-capacity-statistics-2023; estimated electricity generation in 2022 based on International Energy Agency (IEA), “Renewables 2022 Data Explorer”, December 6, 2022, https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/renewables-data-explorer. Heat capacity and output in 2022 are extrapolations based on five-year average annualised growth from 2015 through 2019, from J.W. Lund and A.N. Toth, “Direct Utilization of Geothermal Energy 2020 Worldwide Review”, October 2020, https://www.geothermal-energy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/WGC/2020/01018.pdf. 1
  2. For heat applications, geothermal fluid can be used directly or via heat exchangers, where the fluid is re-injected into the crust. For electricity generation, geothermal steam is used directly to drive turbines (either dry or flash steam), or, in the case of binary-cycle plants, geothermal fluid is used to heat a secondary working fluid that powers the turbine. Sub-surface geothermal fluid undergoes flash evaporation to steam as pressure drops ascending a wellbore and at the power plant.2
  3. End-2021 capacity data and capacity additions in 2022 from sources in endnote 1.3
  4. Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21), “Renewables Global Status Report”, 2018-2022 editions, https://www.ren21.net/reports/global-status-report. 4
  5. See sources in endnote 1. Figure 17 based on end-2021 capacity data and capacity additions in 2022 from sources in endnote 1 and from sources noted elsewhere in this section. For the purpose of this figure, end-2021 capacity is assumed to be equal to end-2022 capacity less new capacity installed (or capacity expansion) during 2022.5
  6. End-2021 capacity data from sources in endnote 1; capacity additions in 2022, by country, from sources noted elsewhere in this section. 6
  7. In some instances, the effective geothermal generating capacity (achievable or running capacity) may be lower than indicated values, due to gradual degradation of the steam-generating capability of geothermal fields or to insufficient drilling of make-up wells to replenish steam flow over time. If a geothermal power plant extracts heat and steam from the reservoir at a rate that exceeds the rate of replenishment across all its boreholes, additional wells may be drilled over time to tap additional steam flow, provided that the geothermal field overall is capable of supporting additional steam flow. For example, the effective net generation capacity in the United States was 2.6 GW at the end of 2022, as resource depletion in particular has limited the effective output far below the stated gross nameplate capacity of 3.9 GW. This resource-limited capability of a geothermal plant defines its dependable running capacity, as opposed to the total nameplate capacity of its generator(s). For the United States, most of the difference between nameplate and running capacity (about 800 MW) results from plant de-rating at the Geysers geothermal field in California, which is not able to produce enough steam, due to productivity decline, to operate at nameplate capacity. Net summer capacity from US Energy Information Administration (EIA), “Electric Power Monthly”, February 2022, Table 6.2.B, https://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly; nameplate capacity from US EIA, “Form EIA-860M (Preliminary Monthly Electric Generator Inventory)”, December 2021, https://www.eia.gov/electricity/data/eia860m; US Department of Energy, Office of Scientific and Technical Information, “GeoVision: Harnessing the Heat Beneath Our Feet”, June 2019, https://www.energy.gov/eere/geothermal/downloads/geovision-harnessing-heat-beneath-our-feet. In general, a power plant's net capacity equals gross capacity less the plant's own power requirements and any seasonal de-rating. In the case of geothermal plants, net capacity also would reflect the effective power capability of the plant as determined by the current steam production of the geothermal field. 7
  8. Kenya Generating Company (KenGen), “Good News for Kenya as KenGen Completes Construction of Olkaria I Unit 6 Geothermal Power Plant”, March 29, 2022, https://www.kengen.co.ke/index.php/information-center/news-and-events-3/good-news-for-kenya-as-kengen-completes-construction-of-olkaria-i-unit-6-geothermal-power-plant.html; KenGen, “Good News for Kenyans as President Uhuru Kenyatta Switches on KenGen's 86MW Olkaria Geothermal Power Plant”, July 26, 2022, https://www.kengen.co.ke/index.php/information-center/news-and-events-3/good-news-for-kenyans-as-president-uhuru-kenyatta-switches-on-kengen%E2%80%99s-86mw-olkaria-geothermal-power-plant.html. 8
  9. Energy & Petroleum Regulatory Authority, “Biannual Energy and Petroleum Statistics Report for the Financial Year 2022/2023”, April 25, 2023, https://www.epra.go.ke/biannual-energy-and-petroleum-statistics-report-for-the-financial-year-2022-2023/. 9
  10. KenGen, “Olkaria 1 Units 1, 2 & 3 Rehabilitation Project”, https://www.kengen.co.ke/index.php/business/projects/ongoing.html, accessed April 2023; KenGen, “KenGen Reports 11% Revenue Growth for the First Half of 2022 (2)”, March 1, 2023, https://www.kengen.co.ke/index.php/information-center/news-and-events/kengen-reports-11-revenue-growth-for-the-first-half-of-2023.html. 10
  11. KenGen, “KenGen Reports 11% Revenue Growth for the First Half of 2022 (2)”, op. cit. note 10. 11
  12. Net capacity and generation for years 2016 and 2021 from US EIA, “Electric Power Monthly”, February 2018 and February 2023, Table 1.1.A and Table 6.2.B, https://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly. 12
  13. Ibid.13
  14. Ormat Technologies, “Ormat Technologies Reports First Quarter 2022 Financial Results”, May 2, 2022, https://investor.ormat.com/news-events/news/news-details/2022/Ormat-Technologies-Reports-First-Quarter-2022-Financial-Results/default.aspx. Reported as 13 MW by the developer, the addition has recorded nameplate capacity of 25.5 MW and net summer capacity of 17 MW, from US EIA, “Electric Power Monthly”, op. cit. note 7, Table 6.2.B, https://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly; and from US EIA, “Form EIA-860M (Preliminary Monthly Electric Generator Inventory)”, December 2022, https://www.eia.gov/electricity/data/eia860m. 14
  15. Ormat Technologies, “Ormat Commences Commercial Operation of the 30 MW CD4 Geothermal Project”, July 18, 2022, https://investor.ormat.com/news-events/news/news-details/2022/Ormat-Commences-Commercial-Operation-of-the-30MW-CD4-Geothermal-Project/default.aspx. 15
  16. Generation for 2022 from US EIA, “Electric Power Monthly”, op. cit. note 7, Tables ES1.B, 1.1 and 1.1.A.16
  17. C. Augustine et al., “Enhanced Geothermal Shot Analysis for the Geothermal Technologies Office”, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, January 2023, https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy23osti/84822.pdf. 17
  18. KS Orka, “News Stream”, https://ksorka-sorikmarapi.com, accessed April 2022; Pertamina Geothermal Energy, “Accelerating the energy transition, PGE completes the binary organic rankine cycle geothermal power plant project in North Sulawesi”, December 8, 2022, https://www.pge.pertamina.com/en/press-release/accelerating-the-energy-transition-pge-completes-the-binary-organic-rankine-cycle-geothermal-power-plant-project-in-north-sulawesi; Pertamina Geothermal Energy, “PGE soon to operate PLTP utilizing geothermal wet steam”, February 18, 2022, https://www.pge.pertamina.com/en/press-release/pge-soon-to-operate-pltp-utilizing-geothermal-wet-steam; Pertamina Geothermal Energy, “PGE's Journey”, https://www.pge.pertamina.com/en/pge-history, accessed May 2023. 18
  19. Ibid.19
  20. Ibid.20
  21. Capacity at year-end 2018-2022 from ESDM, “Capaian Kinerja Sektor ESDM Tahun 2022 & Target Tahun 2023”, January 30, 2023, https://www.esdm.go.id/id/media-center/arsip-berita/pnbp-lampaui-target-menteri-esdm-sampaikan-rincian-torehan-esdm-di-tahun-2022-; capacity at year-end 2017-2021 from ESDM, “Capaian Kinerja Sektor ESDM Tahun 2021 & Rencana 2022”, January 12, 2022, https://www.esdm.go.id/assets/media/content/content-capaian-kinerja-sektor-esdm-tahun-2021-dan-rencana-tahun-2022.pdf. 21
  22. ESDM, “Handbook of Energy & Economic Statistics of Indonesia”, April 2022, https://www.esdm.go.id/id/publikasi/handbook-of-energy-economic-statistics-of-indonesia. 22
  23. ESDM, “Capaian Kinerja Sektor ESDM Tahun 2022 & Target Tahun 2023”, January 30, 2023, https://www.esdm.go.id/id/media-center/arsip-berita/pnbp-lampaui-target-menteri-esdm-sampaikan-rincian-torehan-esdm-di-tahun-2022-. 23
  24. ESDM, “Rencana Pengembangan Pembangkit Nasional Beri Porsi EBT Lebih Besar”, February 1, 2023, https://www.esdm.go.id/id/media-center/arsip-berita/rencana-pengembangan-pembangkit-nasional-beri-porsi-ebt-lebih-besar; ESDM, “Pemerintah Perkuat Komitmen Transisi Energi Melalui Peraturan Presiden Pengembangan EBT”, October 8, 2022, https://www.esdm.go.id/id/media-center/arsip-berita/pemerintah-perkuat-komitmen-transisi-energi-melalui-peraturan-presiden-pengembangan-ebt. 24
  25. C. Cariaga, “Binary Unit at San Jacinto Geothermal Project, Nicaragua Commences Operations", ThinkGeoEnergy, January 3, 2023, https://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/binary-unit-at-san-jacinto-geothermal-project-nicaragua-commences-operations. 25
  26. A. Richter, “The San-Jacinto-Tizate Geothermal Power Plant in
    Nicaragua", ThinkGeoEnergy, May 31, 2020, https://www.
    thinkgeoenergy.com/the-san-jacinto-tizate-geothermal-power-
    plant-in-nicaragua    . 26
  27. A.D. Fronda et al., “Geothermal energy development: The Philippines country update”, Proceedings World Geothermal Congress 2020, https://www.geothermal-energy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/WGC/2020/01065.pdf; Republic of the Philippines, Department of Energy, “Grid-connected capacity as of December 31, 2022”, 2022, https://www.doe.gov.ph/sites/default/files/pdf/electric_power/04_LVM%20Grid%20Summary.pdf. 27
  28. Fronda et al., op. cit. note 27; Energy Development Corporation, “EDC inaugurates 3.6 MW Mindanao-3 geothermal binary plant today”, April 27, 2022, https://www.energy.com.ph/2022/04/27/edc-inaugurates-3-6-mw-mindanao-3-geothermal-binary-plant-today. 28
  29. Energy Development Corporation, op. cit. note 28.29
  30. M.M. Velasco, “PH to open RE for 100% foreign ownership”, Manila Bulletin, July 13, 2020, https://mb.com.ph/2020/07/12/ph-to-open-re-for-100-foreign-ownership; M.M. Velasco, “Gov't opens full foreign ownership to integrated geothermal projects”, Manila Bulletin, October 28, 2020, https://mb.com.ph/2020/10/28/govt-opens-full-foreign-ownership-to-integrated-geothermal-projects; M.M. Velasco, “DOE eyes 100% foreign RE ownership to spur manufacturing investments”, Manila Bulletin, August 14, 2022, https://mb.com.ph/2022/8/14/doe-eyes-100-foreign-re-ownership-to-spur-manufacturing-investments; M.M. Velasco, “DOJ sustains 40% foreign RE ownership rule”, Manila Bulletin, September 30, 2022, https://mb.com.ph/2022/9/30/doj-sustains-40-foreign-re-ownership-rule. 30
  31. M.M. Velasco, “EDC ramps up geothermal capacity”, Manila Bulletin, December 17, 2022, https://mb.com.ph/2022/12/17/edc-ramps-up-geothermal-capacity; J.L. Mayuga, “Lack of incentives crimps investments in geothermal”, Business Mirror, March 2, 2020, https://businessmirror.com.ph/2020/03/02/lack-of-incentives-crimps-investments-in-geothermal; M.M. Velasco, “Geothermal investors seek ‘risk insurance perks' for new projects”, Manila Bulletin, January 19, 2021, https://mb.com.ph/2021/01/19/geothermal-investors-seek-risk-insurance-perks-for-new-projects. 31
  32. Climeon, “Case Study: The Sansui Power Plant”, https://climeon.com/case-study-the-sansui-power-plant, accessed April 2023; Baseload Power, “Sansui geothermal power plant begins operations in Kumamoto – renewable energy made possible with hot spring operator together with local and global partners”, April 26, 2022, https://www.baseloadpower.jp/en/sansui-geothermal-power-plant-begins-operations-in-kumamoto. 32
  33. Ibid., both sources.33
  34. Turkish Energy Market Regulatory Authority (EMRA/EPDK), “Electricity Market Sector Report”, http://www.emra.org.tr, accessed April 2023; Turkish Electricity Transmission Company (TEİAŞ), http://www.teias.gov.tr, accessed April 2023. 34
  35. Ibid.35
  36. Ibid.36
  37. JESDER, “Jeotermal Enerjide Yatırımlar Ancak Teşvikle Yapılabilir”, March 7, 2022, http://jesder.org/jeotermal-enerjide-yatirimlar-ancak-tesvikle-yapilabilir; JESDER, “YEKDEM Güncellenecek JES Yatırımları Başlayacak”, February 2, 2023, https://jesder.org/yekdem-guncellenecek-jes-yatirimlari-baslayacak. 37
  38. JESDER, “YEKDEM güncellemesinde son aşamaya gelindi”, March 9, 2023, https://jesder.org/yekdem-guncellemesinde-son-asamaya-gelindi. 38
  39. Calculation based on Lund and Toth, op. cit. note 1. Growth of 2.7 GW in 2022 based on five-year compound annual growth rate of 7.8% from 2014 through 2019 (total capacity having grown from 20,627 MW in 2014 to 30,080 MW in 2019).39
  40. Ibid.40
  41. Calculation based on Lund and Toth, op. cit. note 1. Growth of 14.2 TWh in 2022 based on differentiated five-year compound annual growth rate across nine end-use categories from 2014 through 2019 (total output having grown from 265,790 TJ in 2014 to 420,906 TJ in 2019).41
  42. Figure 18 based on Ibid.42
  43. Distribution and calculation of share based on Lund and Toth, op. cit. note 1.43
  44. Lund and Toth, op. cit. note 1.44
  45. Projection based on historical data from T. Tian et al., “Rapid Development of China's Geothermal Industry – China National Report of the 2020 World Geothermal Conference”, Proceedings World Geothermal Congress 2020, 2020, http://www.geothermal-energy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/WGC/2020/01068.pdf. 45
  46. Projection based on historical data from Lund and Toth, op. cit. note 1.46
  47. Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development, “‘14th Five-Year' Building Energy Efficiency and Green Building Development Plan”, March 11, 2022, https://www.mohurd.gov.cn. 47
  48. O. Mertoglu, “Geothermal Energy Use: Projections and Country Update for Turkey”, Proceedings World Geothermal Congress 2020, 2020, http://www.geothermal-energy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/WGC/2020/01049.pdf; projection based on Lund and Toth, op. cit. note 1. 48
  49. Value for 2019 from O. Mertoglu, “Geothermal Energy Use: Projections and Country Update for Turkey”, Proceedings World Geothermal Congress 2020, 2020, http://www.geothermal-energy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/WGC/2020/01049.pdf; value for 2020 from O. Mertoglu et al., “Geothermal Energy Use, Country Update for Türkiye – 2022”, European Geothermal Congress 2022, Berlin, 17-21 October 2022, https://www.europeangeothermalcongress.eu. 49
  50. Lund and Toth, op. cit. note 1. 50
  51. National Energy Authority, “Orkustofnun Data Repository OS-2021-T012-01”, September 10, 2021, https://orkustofnun.is/orkustofnun/gagnasofn/talnaefni; National Energy Authority, “Orkustofnun Data Repository OS-2022-T002-01” April 22, 2022, https://orkustofnun.is/orkustofnun/gagnasofn/talnaefni; Á. Ragnarsson, B. Steingrímsson and S. Thorhallsson, “Geothermal Energy Use, Country Update for Iceland”, European Geothermal Congress 2022, Berlin, October 17-21, 2022, https://www.europeangeothermalcongress.eu. 51
  52. National Energy Authority, “Orkustofnun Data Repository OS-2021-T012-01”, op. cit. note 51.52
  53. Ragnarsson, Steingrímsson and Thorhallsson, op. cit. note 51.53
  54. RARIK, “Ný Hitaveita RARIK á Höfn í Hornafirði”, December 18, 2020, https://www.hornafjordur.is/stjornsysla/sveitarfelagid/frettasafn/ny-hitaveita-i-hornafirdi; RARIK, “Mikilvægt Framfaraskref Fyrir Byggðina í Hornafirði”, October 21, 2021, https://www.rarik.is/frettir/mikilvaegt-framfaraskref-fyrir-byggdina-i-hornafirdi. 54
  55. Growth percentage from Geothermie Nederland, “Productiecijfers aardwarmte 2022 opnieuw gestegen, maar groei blijft achter”, February 23, 2023, https://geothermie.nl/actueel/nieuws/productiecijfers-aardwarmte-2022-opnieuw-gestegen-maar-groei-blijft-achter; number of projects and capacity from M. Provoost and F. Agterberg, “Geothermal Energy Use, Country Update for The Netherlands”, European Geothermal Congress 2022, Berlin, October 17-21, 2022, https://www.europeangeothermalcongress.eu. 55
  56. Geothermie Nederland, op. cit. note 55.56
  57. Provoost and Agterberg, op. cit. note 55.57
  58. Ibid.58
  59. Ibid.59
  60. V. Schmidlé-Bloch et al., “Geothermal Energy Use, Country Update for France”, European Geothermal Congress 2022, Berlin, October 17-21, 2022, https://www.europeangeothermalcongress.eu. 60
  61. Ville de Meudon / ENGIE Solutions, “ENGIE Solutions et la Ville de Meudon accélèrent la transition énergétique du territoire meudonnais grâce à la SAS LTE GéoMeudon”, October 28, 2022, https://www.engie-solutions.com/sites/default/files/assets/2022-11/cp_signature_de_la_convention_geomeudon_vf.pdf; C. Bentzmann, “Inauguration de GéoMarne: La Géothermie Sur Le Territoire de Paris – Vallée de La Marne”, ENGIE Solutions, October 19, 2021, https://www.engie-solutions.com/sites/default/files/assets/2021-12/2021.12.07%20CP%20Mise%20en%20service%20Ve%CC%81lige%CC%81o.pdf; C. Bentzmann, “Mise En Service de La Géothermie de Vélizy-Villacoublay Pour Un Chauffage Urbain Propre et Durable”, ENGIE Solutions, December 7, 2021, https://www.engie-solutions.com/fr/actualites/cp-veligeo; GENYO, “Mise En Service Du Réseau de Chaleur Gényo: Les Villes de Bobigny et Drancy Chauffées à La Géothermie”, March 9, 2021, https://genyo.fr/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/CP-GENYO-09.03.2021-VF.pdf. 61
  62. Ville de Meudon / ENGIE Solutions, op. cit. note 61.62
  63. Bundesverband Geothermie, “Tiefe Geothermieprojekte in Deutschland”, February 2023, https://www.geothermie.de/geothermie/geothermie-in-zahlen.html. 63
  64. Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Klimaschutz, “Geothermie für die Wärmewende – Bundeswirtschaftsministerium startet Konsultationsprozess”, November 11, 2022, https://www.bmwk.de/Redaktion/DE/Pressemitteilungen/2022/11/20221111-geothermie-fuer-die-waermewende.html. 64
  65. Bayerisches Staatsministerium für Wirtschaft, Landesentwicklung und Energie, “Glauber: Bayern Beschleunigt Ausbau der Geothermie”, December 9, 2022, https://www.stmuv.bayern.de/aktuell/presse/pressemitteilung.htm?PMNr=200/22. 65
  66. S. Fuchs, A. Förster and B. Norden, “Evaluation of the terrestrial heat flow in Germany: A case study for the reassessment of global continental heat-flow data”, Earth-Science Reviews, Vol. 235 (December 2022), https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825222003154. 66
  67. See, for example, M. Schreib, “Grünwald baut neue Fernwärmeleitung durch den Forst”, Merkur.de, January 17, 2023, https://www.merkur.de/lokales/muenchen-lk/gruenwald-ort28770/geothermie-gruenwald-fernwaerme-energie-energiekrise-ausbau-laufzorn-ewg-forst-92030984.html. 67
  68. Wien Energy, “Die erste Tiefengeothermie-Anlage für Wien”, https://www.wienenergie.at/tiefengeothermie-aspern, accessed April 2023. 68
  69. Ibid.69
  70. Alpine Geothermal Power Production, “Premier projet suisse de géothermie hydrothermale visant à produire électricité et chaleur”, https://www.agepp.ch, accessed May 2023. 70
  71. R. McRae, “Aus für Geothermieprojekt in Kirchanschöring”, Informationsportal Tiefe Geothermie, June 10, 2022, https://www.tiefegeothermie.de/news/aus-fuer-geothermieprojekt-kirchanschoering; R. McRae, “Rückschlag für Geothermieprojekt in Wilhelmsburg?” September 2, 2022, https://www.tiefegeothermie.de/news/rueckschlag-fuer-geothermieprojekt-wilhelmsburg. 71