RENEWABLES 2023 GLOBAL STATUS REPORT

Renewables in Energy Supply

Hydropower

Key Facts
Hydropower

  • Global installed hydropower capacity reached 1,220 GW in 2022, up 22.2 GW from 2021.
  • China grew its lead in installed hydropower capacity, bringing the total to 368 GW in 2022, more than in Brazil, Canada, the United States and the Russian Federation combined.
  • Hydropower generation reached 4,429 TWh in 2022, half of it produced by only four countries (China, Brazil, Canada and the United States).
  • European hydropower production dropped 19% in 2022 due to extreme drought.
  • Hydropower provides crucial services including load following, grid support and caseload electricity; in areas where hydroelectric production has declined due to drought, coal has been used to supplement these services in some cases.

Global hydropower markets added at least 22.2 GW in 2022, for a total installed capacity of 1,220 GW i . 1 Generation increased 5% over 2021 to reach 4,429 TWh. 2 However, as in 2021, the capacity added in 2022 was well below the estimated 30 GW of hydropower additions that are needed annually to keep global temperature rise below 2°C by 2050. 3 In 2022, hydropower represented 37% of the world's total installed renewable energy capacity and added 2% of the total capacity of all renewables. 4

Image

Fluctuating water levels, related in part to climate change, have raised concerns about hydropower infrastructure and the development of future facilities and storage. Africa, Asia, Europe and North America all experienced severe droughts in 2022, reducing water supplies and the capacity use of plants. 5 In the Zambezi river basin between Zambia and Zimbabwe, the 2.13 GW Kariba reservoir (the world's largest) dropped to 0.97% of its usable storage in December 2022, leading to power rationing and outages. 6 Many drought-stricken areas have turned to coal to supplement power needs. 7 Climate change also could alter seasonal production, causing snowy regions to produce more hydropower in winter as rain replaces snow, and less power in spring and summer due to reduced snowmelt. 8 (see Sidebar 2 on sustainability aspects of hydropower.)

Image

As with solar PV and wind, China dominated the global hydropower market in 2022, with a total installed capacity exceeding that of the next four leading countries combined (Brazil, the United States, Canada and the Russian Federation). 9 (See Figures 22 and 23.) The top four countries in hydropower generation (China, Brazil, Canada and the United States) produced more than the rest of the world combined. 10 Developing countries continued to lead in shares of hydropower in the energy mix, with Costa Rica generating 73% of its electricity from hydropower, and Venezuela, the world's tenth largest producer, generating 68 TWh. 11

Image

FIGURE 22.

Hydropower Global Capacity, Shares of Top 10 Countries and Rest of World, 2022

 FIGURE 22.

Source: See endnote 9 for this section.

Image

FIGURE 23.

Hydropower Global Capacity and Additions, Top 10 Countries, 2022

 FIGURE 23.

Source: See endnote 9 for this section

China expanded its hydropower capacity lead, adding 13 GW in 2022 to reach a total installed capacity of 368 GW. 12 The country is home to the world's largest hydropower facilities and completed several massive projects during the year, including six along the Yangtze River and the last turbines of the 16 GW Baihetan Hydropower Station, the largest since the Three Gorges Dam. 13 Heavy rainfall boosted hydropower generation in South China by 18% in the first five months of 2022, reflecting a recent trend of heightening flood seasons maxing out generation capacities; this helped bring the country's total annual generation to 1,352 TWh. 14 Conversely, the Yangtze River registered record low water levels, posing a threat to Sichuan Provence, which receives 80% of its energy from hydropower. 15

China invested a total of USD 29.9 billion in hydropower projects globally during 2001-2020.

Through its Belt and Road Initiative, China is the owner or investor in diverse infrastructure projects across Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Oceania, having signed memoranda of understanding with around 150 countries. 16 During 2001-2020, China invested a total of USD 29.9 billion in hydropower projects globally, plus another USD 2.5 billion in related transmission and distribution. 17 Overall, at least 38 GW of Belt and Road Initiative hydropower projects are either in operation or under construction, with another 11 GW planned. 18 While such projects have injected capital outside of China, they reportedly have been prone to construction flaws and operational failures, and some have led to displacement of local communities. 19

Brazil ranked second globally in hydropower installed capacity and generation, although it only added just over 300 MW in 2022. 20 Favourable rain conditions boosted production 17% in the country. 21 In total, Brazil generated 92% of its overall electricity from renewables during the year, and hydropower contributed 78% of the renewable energy production. 22

Canada remained third in both total hydropower installed capacity as well as hydroelectric generation. 23 The country continues to be a leader in added capacity and brought online 1 GW of projects in 2022, including the 245 MW Romaine 4 hydroelectric plant in Quebéc. 24 Hydro-Quebéc, a public utility that oversees 37 GW of hydropower and thermal projects in Canada, signalled that it would halt adding hydropower capacity going forward, citing long project timelines and large upfront capital requirements. 25

In the United States, the world's fourth largest producer of hydropower, generation increased 4% in 2022 to reach 262 gigawatt-hours (GWh), representing 6.2% of the country's energy mix. 26 The decades-long megadrought in the US west continued to affect generation in the first half of 2022. 27 The Western Area Power Administration, with around 10 GW of installed hydropower capacity, recorded only 65.7% of average generation during the 2022 fiscal year, attributing the decline to “negligible” snowpack ii . 28 However, levels rebounded in the second half of 2022 and into 2023 as the Sierra Nevada mountains and the Colorado River Basin experienced heavy snowfall. 29 Overall, generation across California, Oregon and Washington state grew 14.2% in 2022 to 129,918 TWh, representing 49.6% of the US total. 30

In 2022, 14.2 MW of small hydropower plants came online in the United States, while 8.4 MW were retired. 31 As of the end of 2022, 351 MW of total hydropower was planned or under construction in the country. 32 The US installed hydropower capacity was stagnant for the year, at 80 GW. 33

Image
Image

Sidebar 2. Standardising Sustainability in the Hydropower Sector

As the world's oldest renewable energy technology and the largest source of renewable electricity to date, hydropower continues to face challenges related to sustainability – especially large-scale hydropower i . Factors contributing to the social and environmental impacts of hydropower include the sourcing of construction materials, disruption of ecosystems from dams and reservoirs, methane production from decomposing organic material in flooded areas, and the displacement of communities, among others.

Hydropower requires far fewer minerals and precious metals than other renewable energy technologies, but it still depends on copper, chromium, zinc and aluminium for plant operations. Because hydroelectric plants serve as both energy production and infrastructure projects, their construction and maintenance rely heavily on cement and steel. Materials contribute just over 30% of the greenhouse gas emissions from hydropower projects, typically releasing around 43 grams per kilowatt-hour (kWh,) but at times reaching 2,200 grams per kWh.

The majority of emissions from hydropower come from sedimentation and the anaerobic decomposition of organic materials in reservoirs, especially in areas with dense vegetation such as the Amazon. Methane emissions from reservoir hydropower projects can reach 88 grams per kWh, or up to 70% of total life-cycle emissions. Overall, global emissions from hydropower totalled 103 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent in 2022.

In the past, financing for renewable energy projects through green bonds has excluded hydropower because of unclear sustainability criteria. In 2021, however, the Climate Bonds Standard began registering green bonds to finance hydropower projects characterised by low emission intensity and high power density ii . To enable access to green bond financing under the Climate Bonds Standard and promote involvement, the Swiss government's Hydropower Sustainability ESG Assessment Fund, open from 2020 to 2024, is awarding CHF 1 million (USD 1.07 million) to evaluate global hydropower projects' environmental, social and governance performance. As of 2023, at least USD 150 million worth of certified bonds and loans had been issued under the criteria.

However, hydropower projects pose broader sustainability impacts than those covered in these criteria, contributing to biodiversity loss, erosion, and habitat destruction, among other impacts. Life-cycle assessments for projects can range widely because of limited data availability and inconsistent modelling approaches. Moreover, displacement of communities remains a serious concern, as illustrated by recent local opposition to the Janjići plant in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Bener dam in Indonesia. China's Three Gorges Dam, completed in 2006, resulted in the largest human displacement from a hydropower project, displacing more than 1 million people during the 17-year construction period.

Transmission infrastructure from remote hydropower projects also has affected Indigenous lands, sparking backlash. In the United States, the New England Clean Energy Connect faced fierce opposition as Native American groups claimed that ancestral territories were not proper considered in the development of transmission lines.

Image

Sustainability standards such as the Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol have attempted to standardise assessments and to accredit projects that use good practices to minimise the environmental and social impacts. However, comprehensive assessments are still relatively new to the sector. The 510 MW Teesta V hydropower station in northern India was the first hydropower project globally to base its assessment on criteria related to climate change resilience and the mitigation of carbon emissions. In early 2023, the 11 MW Sebzor hydropower facility in Tajikistan became the first project certified under the Hydropower Sustainability Standard, meeting 12 criteria including preserving biodiversity, maintaining water quality and addressing resettlement of communities.

The International Hydropower Association (IHA) offers training programmes to certify professionals to conduct sustainability assessments and to implement strategies based on the Hydropower Sustainability Standard. Nepal's Hydropower Association recently partnered with the IHA to train 60 professionals to improve hydropower project performance and attract green finance.

i Large-scale hydropower plants refer to facilities greater than 30 MW. Small and mini hydropower typically imply lower environmental impacts due to small land area use and less disruption to surrounding natural ecosystems.

ii Projects starting operation after 2020 must meet criteria of either less than 50 grams of CO2 equivalent per kWh produced or a power density of greater than 10 watts per square metre (W/m2); for facilities in operation before 2020, the criteria are less than 100 grams of CO2 equivalent per kWh or greater than 5 W/m2.

Source: See endnote 8 for this section.

In Europe, hydropower plants serve as the renewable energy source for baseload electricity, load following and grid support; however, in 2022 the worst drought in 500 years led to a 19% decline in regional output. 34 Severe drought led some hydropower reserves in Italy and Spain to drop by half. 35 To partially fill an energy generation gap of 185 TWh, many countries turned to coal production, which rose 7% in 2022. 36 Hydropower represented 10% (283 TWh) of Europe's electricity output in 2022, led by Sweden (69 TWh), France (46 TWh), and Austria (36 TWh), which together comprised more than half of the continent's hydropower generation. 37 In Austria, Croatia, Latvia, and Sweden, hydropower accounted for more than 35% of the total electricity mix in 2022. 38

Outside of China, Asia generated 940 TWh of hydropower in 2022 and added 2.8 GW, for a total installed capacity of 269.6 GW. 39 Pakistan's 720 MW Karot plant, which came online in June, is the first project developed by the China Three Gorges Corporation under the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor, bringing Pakistan's total hydropower capacity to 10.6 GW. 40 India's 600 MW Kameng plant came online in November 2022 as part of the country's plan to install 30 GW of hydropower by 2030. 41 In Nepal, the energy authority is authorised to export up to 400 MW of hydropower to India's grid, but it has been unable to meet the maximum power level due to a drop in capacity use from 2,200 to 1,550 MW, related to reduced precipitation and receding glaciers in the Himalaya region. 42

Türkiye added 80 MW in 2022, outpacing additions in 2021 for a total capacity of 32 GW iii. 43 Over the last two decades, Türkiye has invested heavily in hydropower, adding around 650 systems. 44 The recently completed 588 MW Yusufeli dam, the world's fifth largest, began filling its reservoir in 2022. 45 The Tigris-Euphrates river system, where increasingly complex water needs involve five countries that share the basin, rebounded after a dry 2021. 46 As result, hydropower plants in Türkiye were able to double their daily generation to more than 110 GWh, helping to minimise power shortages during a 10-day period in January 2022 when fossil gas supplies from Iran were disrupted. 47

In Africa, hydropower capacity increased 2.6 GW to reach 37.7 GW in 2022, generating at least 150 TWh. 48 The region is the most untapped globally for hydropower development, with a potential capacity of 474 GW as of 2021, especially in West Africa and parts of Southern and Central Africa. 49 In 2022, drought affected primarily Central and East Africa, and Ethiopia, Kenya and Somalia experienced between 30-60% less rainfall from October to December – the region's longest and most severe drought on record. 50

Kenya's Electricity Generating Company reported that hydropower, along with geothermal and wind power, will help meet the country's growing electricity demand, which exceeded a record 2 GW in 2022. 51 Kenya signed an import deal with Ethiopia that will likely include electricity from the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (5.3 GW), which when completed will be Africa's largest hydropower project. 52 In August 2022, the dam started producing electricity from the second of 13 turbines of 375 MW each. 53

Hydropower is set to supply the bulk of energy in Tanzania. 54 The reservoir for the 2.1 GW Julius Nyerere Dam started to fill in January 2023 and is expected to produce 5,920 GWh annually. 55 Hydropower already accounts for 31% of Tanzania's electricity needs, and another 600 MW of small- to medium-sized hydropower plants is in the pipeline. 56 In Nigeria, all four 175 MW turbines of the Zungeru Hydropower Station were commissioned in 2022 and began operation. 57 The plant, plus an additional 700 MW of projects in the pipeline, are expected to meet 10% of the country's energy needs when completed. 58

Many countries in Latin America and the Caribbean were early adopters of hydropower as a primary source of electricity generation. Five countries – Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Panama and Venezuela – produce more than 70% of their electricity from hydropower. 59 In 2022, the region had a total installed capacity of 20.9 GW and generated 69 TWh. 60

Hydropower plants have a lifetime of 30 to 80 years, presenting opportunities to improve their efficiency, extend lifespans, and boost capacity and generation through refurbishment and modernisation. Based on 2022 estimates, worldwide hydropower modernisation efforts could increase the total installed capacity of existing plants by roughly 9 GW. 61 Around 600 GW of hydropower plants are 30 years or older, and 400 GW are 40 years or older. 62 In Africa, where around 38% of the fleet is in medium to high need of modernisation, it would cost around USD 6.8 billion to bring 0.8 GW of idled hydropower units back online and to upgrade overall regional capacity from 0.7 to 1.6 GW. 63 In Latin America and the Caribbean, an estimated 70 GW of capacity will need short- or medium-term modernisation, at around USD 32 billion. 64

Image

Footnotes

i Hydropower capacities exclude pumped storage, which serves as energy storage, not as an energy source.

ii Snowpack refers to the measure of compacted snow from the previous winter. The run-off water from the snowpack feeds into rivers and streams, contributing to higher water levels in spring and summer.

iii This total excludes the Yusufeli project, which was completed in 2022, but was still not in operation as of early 2023.

  1. International Hydropower Association (IHA) and International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), personal communications with Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21), April – May 2023, unless otherwise stated. 1
  2. Hydropower generation data in 2022 for all countries from IHA and Ember, personal communications with REN21, April – May 2023, unless otherwise stated. China generated 1,352 TWh in 2022, from National Bureau of Statistics of China, “China's Economic and Social Development Statistics”, February 27, 2023, http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/PressRelease/202302/t20230227_1918979.html; United States from EIA, op. cit. note 1; 2021 global generation from REN21, “Renewables 2022 Global Status Report”, 2022, https://www.ren21.net/gsr-2022. 2
  3. IHA, “Slow Hydropower Growth Is a Stark Wake-Up Call to Governments on Climate”, May 7, 2022, https://www.hydropower.org/news/slow-hydropower-growth-is-a-stark-wake-up-call-to-governments-on-climate. 3
  4. Shares of hydropower capacity and generation in the global energy mix based on total renewable energy capacity of 3,372 GW, and total renewable energy generation of 4,311 TWh; see endnotes in respective sections of this report. Ember, “Global Electricity Review 2023”, 2023, https://ember-climate.org/insights/research/global-electricity-review-2023/#supporting-material; IRENA, “Renewable Capacity Statistics 2023”, 2023, https://www.irena.org/Publications/2023/Mar/Renewable-capacity-statistics-2023. 4
  5. See endnotes throughout this section on regional drought levels and their effects on water levels. 5
  6. E. Martin, “World's Largest Man-Made Dam Has Less Than 1% of Usable Water”, Bloomberg, January 3, 2023, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-01-03/world-s-largest-man-made-dam-has-less-than-1-of-usable-water. 6
  7. X. Zhou, S&P Global Commodity Insights, personal communication with REN21, March 24, 2023.7
  8. The Conversation, “Hydropower's Future Is Clouded by Droughts, Floods, and Climate Change. It's Also Essential to the US Electric Grid.” May 17, 2022, https://theconversation.com/hydropowers-future-is-clouded-by-droughts-floods-and-climate-change-its-also-essential-to-the-us-electric-grid-182314. Sidebar 2 based on the following sources: P. Bogaart, “The potential for sustainable hydropower”, Nature Water, Vol. 1 (2023), pp. 22-23, https://doi.org/10.1038/s44221-022-00018-9; International Energy Agency, “The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions: Mineral Requirements for Clean Energy Transitions”, 2021, https://www.iea.org/reports/the-role-of-critical-minerals-in-clean-energy-transitions/mineral-requirements-for-clean-energy-transitions; between infrastructure, supply chain emissions and life-cycle emissions (maintenance and repair), materials represent 33% of total emissions per kWh over the lifetime of hydropower projects, from S. Schlömer et al., “Annex III: Technology-specific cost and performance parameters”, in O. Edenhofer et al., eds., Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2014, https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/ipcc_wg3_ar5_annex-ii.pdf; M. Barnard, “Hydroelectric dams have environmental challenges”, The Future Is Electric, September 1, 2018, https://medium.com/the-future-is-electric/hydroelectric-dams-have-environmental-challenges-901a6dbbdb53; emissions based on estimate of 24 g of CO2 equivalent per kWh, from IPCC's Fifth Assessment Report; Schlömer et al., op. cit. this note, and on 103 million tonnes of CO2 from Ember, “Electricity Data Explorer”, https://ember-climate.org/data/data-tools/data-explorer, accessed 26 May 2023; Climate Bonds Initiative, “Hydropower Criteria: The Hydropower Criteria for the Climate Bonds Standard & Certification Scheme”, March 2021, https://www.climatebonds.net/files/files/Hydropower-Criteria-doc-March-2021-release3.pdf; IHA, “Climate Bonds for Hydropower”, https://www.hydropower.org/iha/climate-bonds, accessed May 25, 2023; USD 150 million from Climate Bonds Initiative, “Certified Bonds Database”, https://www.climatebonds.net/certification/certified-bonds, accessed May 25, 2023; IHA, “HESG Fund”, https://www.hydrosustainability.org/hesg-fund, accessed May 27, 2023. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, “Good Practice Hydropower: The Key to Sustainability”, https://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/sdissues/energy/op/hydro_lochergoodpracticepaper.pdf, accessed May 24, 2023; assessments vary from Y. Liu, X. Li and Y. Chen, “Exploring the impact of COVID-19 on global tourism through online review analysis”, Tourism Management, Vol. 89 (2022), p. 104892, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2021.104892; M. Hariyadi, “Central Java, arrests at Bener dam protests”, Asia News, October 2, 2022, https://www.asianews.it/news-en/Central-Java,-arrests-at-Bener-dam-protests-55117.html; Z. Trkanjec, “Germany's KfW bank drops financing of BiH hydropower project”, Euractiv, January 30, 2022, https://www.euractiv.com/section/politics/short_news/germanys-kfw-bank-drops-financing-of-bih-hydropower-project/; IHA, “How investors can avoid funding the wrong hydropower projects”, March 22, 2022, https://www.hydropower.org/blog/how-investors-can-avoid-funding-the-wrong-hydropower-projects; Reuters, “China's Three Gorges Dam, Already Troubled, Faces New Tests”, August 22, 2012, "https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-threegorges-idUSBRE87L0ZW20120822"; D. Gelles, “Hydro-Québec Finds a New Export Market: Clean Energy for Maine”, New York Times, May 6, 2022, https://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/06/climate/hydro-quebec-maine-clean-energy.html; Hydropower Sustainability Council, “Hydropower Sustainability Standard”, June 2021, https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5c1978d3ee1759dc44fbd8ba/t/60ddb3a844b5887d18fe2341/1625142194189/HS+Standard_July+2021.pdf; Power Magazine, “Indian Hydropower Project an Example of Good Practice in Sustainability”, August 7, 2019, https://www.powermag.com/press-releases/indian-hydropower-project-an-example-of-good-practice-in-sustainability/"; Water Power & Dam Construction, “World first as Sebzor project certified against hydropower sustainability standard”, March 22, 2023, https://www.waterpowermagazine.com/news/newsworld-first-as-sebzor-project-certified-against-hydropower-sustainability-standard-10695971; Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Council, “Certified User Training – November 2023”, https://training.hydrosustainability.org/courses/certified-user-training-november-2023; IHA, “Nepal to Become a Centre of Excellence in Sustainable Hydropower”, March 25, 2021, https://www.hydropower.org/news/nepal-to-become-a-centre-of-excellence-in-sustainable-hydropower. 8
  9. Capacities for Brazil, the United States, Canada, the Russian Federation and India based on IHA, op. cit. note 1. Figures 22 and 23 from IHA, op. cit. note 1. China added 13 GW of hydropower, bringing the total to 368 GW of installed capacity in 2022, from National Energy Administration (NEA), “Record of the press conference of the National Energy Administration in the first quarter of 2023”, February 13, 2023, http://www.nea.gov.cn/2023- 02/13/c_1310697149.htm (using Google Translate); United States data on added capacity and total capacity from US Energy Information Administration, “Electric Power Monthly with Data for December 2022”, February 2023, Tables 6.2.B and 6.3, https:// www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly/index.php; Türkiye data from IRENA, personal communication with REN21, and from Energy Market Regulatory Authority of Türkiye, “Elektrik Piyasasi Aylık Sektör Raporu (Monthly Electricity Market Sector Report)”, 2023, https://www.epdk.gov.tr/Detay/Icerik/3-0-23/elektrikaylik-sektor-raporlar; France total and added capacity from Réseau de Transport d'Électricité (RTE), “Production Installed Capacity”, https ://www.services-rte.com/en/view-data-published-by-rte/ production-installed-capacity.html, accessed May 2023.9
  10. NEA, op. cit. note 9; US EIA, “How much of U.S. energy consumption and electricity generation comes from renewable energy sources?” October 28, 2022, https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.php?id=427&t=3; IHA, op. cit. note 1.10
  11. Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad, División Operación y Control del Sistema Eléctrico, “Generación y Demanda (Informe Anual)”, 2022. apps.grupoice.com/CenceWeb/documentos/3/3008/19/Informe%20Anual%20DOCSE%202022.pdf; IHA, op. cit. note 1. 11
  12. NEA, op. cit. note 9.12
  13. Norwegian Energy and Environment Consortium, “State Energy Administration held press conference to release renewable energy in 2022”, January 10, 2022, https://neec.no/国家能源局举行新闻发布会，发布2022年可再生能源; E. Ingram, “Twelve of 16 units now operating at 16-GW Baihetan hydropower station in China”, Hydro Review, June 29, 2022, https://www.hydroreview.com/hydro-industry-news/twelve-of-16-units-now-operating-at-16-gw-baihetan-hydropower-station-in-china. 13
  14. Reuters, “China's Surging Hydropower a Boon for Its Climate Goals, Energy Bills”, July 12, 2022, https://www.reuters.com/world/china/chinas-surging-hydropower-boon-its-climate-goals-energy-bills-2022-07-12; National Bureau of Statistics of China, op. cit. note 9.14
  15. A. Hirtenstein and K. Blunt, “Global Drought Saps Hydropower, Complicating Clean Energy Push”, Wall Street Journal, July 20, 2022, https://ww.wsj.com/articles/global-drought-saps-hydropower-complicating-clean-energy-push-11662758968; H. Davidson, “China Drought Causes Yangtze River to Dry Up, Sparking Shortage of Hydropower”, The Guardian (UK), August 22, 2022, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/aug/22/china-drought-causes-yangtze-river-to-dry-up-sparking-shortage-of-hydropower. 15
  16. Green Finance and Development Center, “Countries of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)”, https://greenfdc.org/countries-of-the-belt-and-road-initiative-bri, accessed April 9, 2023.16
  17. Boston University Global Development Policy Center, “China's Global Energy Finance Database”, http://www.bu.edu/cgef, accessed April 11, 2023.17
  18. Boston University Global Development Policy Center, “China's Global Power Database”, https://www.bu.edu/cgp, accessed April 11, 2023.18
  19. “China Global Mega-Projects' Infrastructure Falling Apart”, Wall Street Journal, November 25, 2021, https://www.wsj.com/articles/china-global-mega-projects-infrastructure-falling-apart-11674166180; Human Rights Watch, “Cambodia: China's ‘Belt and Road' Dam a Rights Disaster”, August 10, 2021, https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/08/10/cambodia-chinas-belt-and-road-dam-rights-disaster.19
  20. IHA, IRENA and Ember, personal communications with REN21, op. cit. notes 1 and 2.20
  21. Ibid.21
  22. L. Morais, “Renewables Account for 92% of Brazil's Power Production in 2022”, Renewables Now, February 2, 2023, https://renewablesnow.com/news/renewables-account-for-92-of-brazils-power-produciton-in-2022-813298. 22
  23. IHA, IRENA and Ember, personal communications with REN21, op. cit. notes 1 and 2.23
  24. Global Energy Monitor, “Romaine 4 hydroelectric plant”, https://www.gem.wiki/Romaine_4_hydroelectric_plant, accessed May 25, 2023; IHA and IRENA, op. cit. note 124
  25. M. Lowrie, “Quebec's Hydropower Era Ends as Last Big Megaproject Nears Completion”, The Energy Mix, January 3, 2022, https://www.theenergymix.com/2022/01/03/quebecs-hydropower-era-ends-as-last-big-megaproject-nears-completion. 25
  26. US EIA, op. cit. note 10.26
  27. N. Rott, “Study Finds Western Megadrought Is the Worst in 1,200 Years”, NPR, February 14, 2022, https://www.npr.org/2022/02/14/1080302434/study-finds-western-megadrought-is-the-worst-in-1-200-years; J. Plautz, “What the Western Drought Reveals About Hydropower”, E&E News, September 13, 2022, https://www.eenews.net/articles/what-the-western-drought-reveals-about-hydropower.27
  28. Western Area Power Administration, “Power Projects”, https://www.wapa.gov/About/Pages/power-projects.aspx, accessed April 9, 2023; Plautz, op. cit. note 27.28
  29. J. Ryan, “Hydropower in the Western U.S. Bounced Back Last Year After a 20-Year Low”, KUOW, April 29, 2022, https://www.kuow.org/stories/hydropower-in-the-western-u-s-bounced-back-last-year-after-a-20-year-low; Drought.gov, “Current Conditions”, https://www.drought.gov/current-conditions, accessed May 8, 2023; E. Bush, “Snow Brings Needed Water to the West”, NBC News, April 8, 2022, https://www.nbcnews.com/science/environment/snow-brings-needed-water-west-rcna72786.29
  30. US EIA, “Hydroelectric (Conventional) Power by State by Sector, Year-to-Date”, Electric Power Monthly, February 2023, https://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly/archive/february2023.pdf. 30
  31. US EIA, “New Utility Scale Generating Units by Operating Company, Plant, and Month, 2023”, Electric Power Monthly, February 2023, https://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly/epm_table_grapher.php?t=table_6_03; US EIA, “Retired Utility Scale Generating Units by Operating Company, Plant, and Month, 2023”, Electric Power Monthly, February 2023, https://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly/epm_table_grapher.php?t=table_6_04.31
  32. US EIA, “Planned U.S. Electric Generating Unit Additions”, Electric Power Monthly, February 2023,https://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly/epm_table_grapher.php?t=table_6_05.32
  33. US EIA, op. cit. note 10.33
  34. Ember, “European Electricity Review 2023. Supporting Material”, 2023, https://ember-climate.org/insights/research/european-electricity-review-2023/#supporting-material. 34
  35. S&P Global, “Droughts rattle Europe's hydropower market, intensifying energy crisis”, August 5, 2022, https://www.spglobal.com/commodityinsights/en/market-insights/latest-news/electric-power/080522-droughts-rattle-europes-hydropower-market-intensifying-energy-crisis; Plautz, op. cit. note 27.35
  36. Ember, “European Electricity Review 2023”, January 2023, https://ember-climate.org/insights/research/european-electricity-review-2023.36
  37. Ibid.37
  38. Ibid.38
  39. IHA and IRENA, op. cit. note 1.39
  40. Enerdata, “Pakistan's 720 MW Karot hydropower plant starts commercial operation”, February 7, 2022,https://www.enerdata.net/publications/daily-energy-news/pakistans-720-mw-karot-hydropower-plant-starts-commercial-operation.html; Hydro Review, “720-MW Karot hydropower project in Pakistan begins operating. Hydro Review”, January 28, 2022, https://www.hydroreview.com/dams-and-civil-structures/720-mw-karot-hydropower-project-in-pakistan-begins-operating. 40
  41. Government of India, Press Information Bureau, “Power Ministry organises a power ministers' conference to discuss electricity sector reforms and initiatives”, May 5, 2022, https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1877233.41
  42. P. Man Shrestha, “Nepal reduces power export to India as production dips”, Kathmandu Post, November 15, 2022, https://kathmandupost.com/national/2022/11/15/nepal-reduces-power-export-to-india-as-production-dips; REN21, op. cit. note 2.42
  43. Energy Market Regulatory Authority of Türkiye, op. cit. note 9. 43
  44. I. Todorović, “Erdogan inaugurates 34 hydropower plants”, Balkan
    Green Energy News, December 11, 2020, https://balkangreenenergy
    news.com/erdogan-inaugurates-34-hydropower-plants    .44
  45. I. Todorović, “Turkey completes world's fifth highest arch dam with hydropower plant”, Balkan Green Energy News, November 28, 2022, https://balkangreenenergynews.com/turkey-completes-worlds-fifth-highest-arch-dam-with-hydropower-plant. 45
  46. S. Kullab, “Climate politics double threat as Tigris, Euphrates shrivels”, ABC News, November 11, 2022, https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/climate-politics-double-threat-tigris-euphrates-shrivels-93540084. 46
  47. Ember, “Türkiye Electricity Review 2023”, 2022, https://ember-
    climate.org/insights/research/turkiye-electricity-review-2023/
    #supporting-material-downloads    . 47
  48. IHA and IRENA, op. cit. note 1.48
  49. IHA, “Africa”, https://www.hydropower.org/region-profiles/africa, accessed April 9, 2023; A. Wasti et al., “Climate change and the hydropower sector: A global review”, Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change, Vol. 13, No. 2 (2022), p. e757, https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.757. 49
  50. D. Dunne, “Analysis: Africa's unreported extreme weather in 2022 and climate change”, Carbon Brief, October 26, 2022, https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-africas-unreported-extreme-weather-in-2022-and-climate-change; NASA Earth Observatory, “Worst Drought on Record Parches Horn of Africa”, December 14, 2022, https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/150712/worst-drought-on-record-parches-horn-of-africa.50
  51. J. Gavin, “Kenya seeks to maximise benefits from baseload renewables”, African Business, July 7, 2022, https://african.business/2022/07/energy-resources/kenya-seeks-to-maximise-benefits-from-baseload-renewables; IHA, op. cit. note 49.51
  52. African Energy Portal, “Largest hydropower project in Africa, GERD, to be fully operational in 2023”, August 17, 2022, https://africa-energy-portal.org/news/largest-hydropower-project-africa-gerd-be-fully-operational-2023. 52
  53. G. Paravicini, “Ethiopia completes third phase filling of giant Nile dam”, Reuters, August 12, 2022, https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/ethiopia-completes-third-phase-filling-giant-nile-dam-2022-08-12. 53
  54. P. Ndawi, “Tanzania: Julius Nyerere hydroelectric dam impoundment launched”, Afrik21, April 7, 2022, https://www.afrik21.africa/en/tanzania-julius-nyerere-hydroelectric-dam-impoundment-launched. 54
  55. R.J. Kuhudzai, “Tanzania starts filling the Julius Nyerere Dam for 2,115 MW hydropower plant”, CleanTechnica, December 26, 2022, https://cleantechnica.com/2022/12/26/tanzania-starts-filling-the-julius-nyerere-dam-for-2115-mw-hydropower-plant. 55
  56. US Department of Commerce, “Tanzania – Energy”, Country Commercial Guides, June 2, 2021, https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/tanzania-energy.56
  57. IHA, “Hydropower Status Report 2022”, 2022, https://www.hydropower.org/publications/2022-hydropower-status-report; Global Energy Monitor, “Zungeru hydroelectric plant”, https://www.gem.wiki/Zungeru_hydroelectric_plant, accessed April 9, 2023.57
  58. Bureau of Public Enterprises Nigeria, “Zungeru Hydropower Project”, https://www.bpe.gov.ng/zungeru-hydropower-project, accessed April 9, 2023.58
  59. IHA, op. cit. note 57.59
  60. IHA and IRENA, op. cit. note 1.60
  61. C. Sass, J. Oberg and M. Hiller, hosts, “The role of hydropower in the energy transition”, Insider's Guide to Energy, March 2022, https://open.spotify.com/episode/2j0eYVMGvynNv1AXpd9EZz?si=541a3ddf96794240.61
  62. Ibid.62
  63. Africa Hydropower and Renewable Energy Partnership, https://www.ahmpafrica.org, accessed April 27, 2023.63
  64. IHA, “Sustainable Hydropower Is the Solution to Delivering Latin American and Caribbean Clean Energy Goals”, February 14, 2023, https://www.hydropower.org/news/sustainable-hydropower-is-the-solution-to-delivering-latin-american-and-caribbean-clean-energy-goals. 64