RENEWABLES 2024
GLOBAL STATUS REPORT

Renewables in Transport

2024

Market Developments

Transport Activity

In 2021, global passenger transport activity totalled nearly 54 trillion passenger-kilometres, up 8.5% from 2020 but still below pre-pandemic levels. 116 Passenger activity was expected to return to 2019 levels in 2023. 117 Half of all passenger-kilometres (50.2%) in 2021 were travelled in Asia, followed by the “UCAN” countries (United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand) (19%) and Europe (13%). 118

The pandemic's impact was less pronounced for freight transport, where activity dropped only 3% in 2020 and surpassed 2019 levels by 2021, reaching 170 trillion tonne-kilometres. 119 The bulk of the freight activity (around 70%) in 2021 was from maritime transport in international waters and inland waterways. 120 The remaining 30% was on land and by air, with half of this occurring in East and Northeast Asia and in the UCAN countries. 121

Top Markets

Energy use in transport is closely linked to population and economic development, and it is distributed unequally across regions. In 2021, North America and Asia together accounted for nearly 61% of the world's transport energy use. 122 The share of renewables used in transport also varies by region, reaching 14.5% in Latin America in 2021 (driven mostly by dedicated biofuel policies in Brazil), 5.5% in Europe (driven by the EU Renewable Energy Directive) and 5.4% in North America (driven by the US Renewable Fuel Standard). 123

Asia experienced the largest growth in transport's renewable energy share over the last decade, nearly tripling from 0.7% in 2010 to 2.2% in 2021, driven by growing renewable electricity use in China. 124 (See Figure 20.) However, the share of renewables in transport decreased in all major transport energy consuming countries between 2020 and 2021, except India, where the share increased from 1.5% to 2%, caused by a doubling of biofuel use and an increasing share of renewables in the electricity mix. 125

FIGURE 20.Renewable Share of Total Final Energy Consumption in Transport, by Region and in the Top Five Energy-Consuming Economies, 2011-2021

FIGURE 20.

Source: See endnote 124 for this module.

Biofuels

Biofuels i remain the dominant renewable fuel in transport, supplying 90% of the sector's renewable energy use. 126 Biofuel consumption increased 3% in 2021, remaining slightly below pre-pandemic levels. 127 Road transport accounted for nearly all liquid biofuel use. 128

Global biofuel production totalled 4.3 exajoules (EJ) in 2022, with around 90% of it from sugar cane, maize, soybean oil, rapeseed oil and palm oil. 129 Only 10% was produced using waste and residue feedstocks, such as used cooking oil and animal fats. 130 The use of energy crops as feedstock is limited by regulation in some markets, such as the EU, and the supply of used waste streams and residues is low. 131 To further expand biofuels, new feedstock sources are required, including ones that are compatible with existing technologies and can be grown on marginal lands or as cover crops. Other potential feedstocks include agricultural and forestry residues and organic components of municipal solid waste, although in many cases the relevant processing technologies are still under development, such as for aviation and shipping. 132

In addition to government incentives for biofuels through blending mandates and other instruments, other stakeholders are investing in promoting the fuels. In Spain, the global energy company Repsol was supplying 100% renewable diesel to 60 service stations by the end of 2023, and it launched a pilot to supply 100% renewable petrol at three of the stations. 133 The new bio-petrol is based on waste from biomass, the agri-food industry and used cooking oils. 134 New York City announced that it would transition the city's entire heavy-duty fleet to 100% renewable diesel by the end of fiscal year 2024. 135

In the Netherlands, a demonstration plant aims to produce drop-in bio-based liquefied natural gas (LNG) derived from household waste starting in 2024, for use as marine fuel. 136 The production of biomethanol based on landfill gas is even further along, having fuelled the maiden voyage of the first green methanol-powered container ship from the Republic of Korea to Denmark in late 2023. 137 If announced projects are realised, the existing production capacity could nearly double by 2028. 138

Although advanced biofuels from waste and residues are quickly approaching commercial operations, renewable fuels based on algae are still largely under development. Efforts continued in 2023, with California-based algae biofuel company Viridos securing new funding after ExxonMobil pulled out as an investor in February. 139 Commercial production at scale is estimated to be at least a decade away. 140

Renewable Electricity

Electric vehicles, especially fully battery-operated vehicles, were still a novelty a decade ago. However, advances in technology, reductions in cost, and policy support have led to exponential growth, which continued in 2022. The global stock of electric cars quadrupled between 2018 and 2023, reaching an overall share of 2%, up from 0.45% in 2018. 141 Electric car sales grew from 2.3% of total car sales in 2018 to 18% in 2023. 142 The development of electric buses and trucks continued at a slower pace. 143 By the end of 2022, 3% of buses globally were electric, but only 0.4% of trucks were. 144

The number of electric two- and three-wheelers exceeded some 250 million worldwide by the end of 2022, dominated by the Asian market. 145 Electrification of these vehicles also has gained attention in Africa, where tailored solutions can address multiple energy, mobility and development challenges.

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Since 2023, the Mobility for Africa Fund has provided electric tricycles to rural communities in Zimbabwe, with business models ranging from upfront purchasing to lease-to-purchase and rental. The service comes with battery swapping based on off-grid renewable electricity as well as training for drivers and technicians. 146 In November 2023, the South African company Zero Carbon Charge began rolling out a network of 120 off-grid, fully renewable vehicle charging stations across the country. The goal is to install solar-powered ultra-fast 720 direct current (DC) as well as 240 alternating current (AC) charging facilities at least every 150 kilometres. 147 (See Snapshot: South Africa.)

In 2022, Norway had the highest share of electric vehicles in its car stock at 27 %

Increasing the use of renewable energy through electric vehicles is only possible if countries expand their renewable electricity generation. As of 2022, just six countries were home to 86% of the global electric car stock: Norway, China, Germany, the United Kingdom, France and the United States. 148 (See Figure 22.) These countries have increased not only the number of EVs on the road since 2018, but also their shares of renewable electricity generation (although at varying paces and from very different starting points). 149 The two countries with the largest electric car fleets, China and the United States, have made greater progress in electrifying transport than in decarbonising the electricity supply. 150

FIGURE 22.Renewable Share in Electricity Production, and Electric Car Stocks and Shares, Selected Countries, 2018 and 2022

FIGURE 22.

Source: See endnote 148 for this module.

Snapshot.SOUTH AFRICA

South Africa Adopting Renewable Charging Solutions to Support Electric Vehicle Revolution

In 2022, South Africa's automobile manufacturing sector was valued at USD 35.2 billion (ZAR 656 billion), contributing nearly 5% of the country's gross domestic product and accounting for 16.5% of its total trade. In 2023, the industry generated 0.8% of all jobs and paid around USD 1.55 billion (ZAR 30 billion) in wages. However, the sector's heavy reliance on auto exports – with two-thirds of all vehicles manufactured in South Africa leaving the country – presents challenges amid the global shift to electric vehicles. To ensure continued global competitiveness and export prominence, the domestic auto industry will need to pivot towards EV production.

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South Africa Adopting Renewable Charging Solutions to Support Electric Vehicle Revolution

In 2022, South Africa's automobile manufacturing sector was valued at USD 35.2 billion (ZAR 656 billion), contributing nearly 5% of the country's gross domestic product and accounting for 16.5% of its total trade. In 2023, the industry generated 0.8% of all jobs and paid around USD 1.55 billion (ZAR 30 billion) in wages. However, the sector's heavy reliance on auto exports – with two-thirds of all vehicles manufactured in South Africa leaving the country – presents challenges amid the global shift to electric vehicles. To ensure continued global competitiveness and export prominence, the domestic auto industry will need to pivot towards EV production.

Nearly half of South Africa's automobile exports go to the EU and the United Kingdom. With the EU aiming to ban sales of internal combustion engine vehicles starting in 2035, there is urgency for South African manufacturers to transition to EV production. The country has an opportunity to bolster the large-scale production of EVs and related components by leveraging existing infrastructure and resources, as well as local supply chains.

Globally, EV sales reached 14% of total vehicles sold in 2022, yet in South Africa EV adoption remained minimal at only 0.17%. Domestic EV sales increased from 218 units in 2021 to 506 units in 2022. Sales are projected to accelerate in the coming years, and the Ministry of Trade, Industry and Competition anticipates domestic EV production by 2026.

The country's energy supply crisis and resulting constraints in grid capacity have challenged the EV transition. As stipulated in South Africa's 2023 Electric Vehicles White Paper, which provides the long-term strategy for the EV transition, the national grid will be unequipped to accommodate the sharp increase in energy demand that EV growth will require. The draft Integrated Resource Plan, released in late 2023, predicts that EV energy demand will require an additional 5 terawatt-hours of electricity capacity by 2034.

Because the country's grid was not designed for high power loads, charging times for EVs are currently slow at two to three hours. EV adoption also remains low due to the limited number of charging stations. As of mid-2023, South Africa had only 350 public charging stations, leaving much of the country unserved. National “load shedding” events, whereby national energy supply is unable to meet demand, reduce the reliability of the power supply, adding uncertainty and further stagnating the demand for EVs.

The climate benefits of transitioning to EVs in South Africa are much lower than in countries that have high renewable energy capacities, as the power supply currently depends heavily on fossil fuels. South Africa is among the most coal-reliant countries globally, with coal contributing 70% of the energy supply and 85% of electricity generation in 2023. The transport sector is the country's second biggest polluter after the power industry, and road transport accounts for 91.2% of transport emissions.

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To alleviate this challenge, private companies are planning to install off-grid charging stations. Zero Carbon Charge aims to establish a national network of 120 off-grid, sustainable charging stations across South Africa. These stations will generate electricity using on-site solar PV, storing energy in lithium iron phosphate batteries, and will provide back-up power using generators fuelled by hydrotreated vegetable oil. The goal is to install a total of 720 ultra-fast direct current (DC) charge points for EVs and 240 alternating current (AC) charge points for plug-in hybrids at the stations.

120 solar-powered off-grid charging stations are scheduled for completion by 2025.

The strategically planned network aims to alleviate “range anxiety” among drivers by enabling a swift charging period of 20 minutes, with stations located 150 kilometres apart on all major routes (See Figure 21.). The entire network is scheduled for completion by September 2025, with 115 agreements already secured with landowners, and 15 of the 120 sites granted environmental and land use approvals as of early 2023. Over the coming years, the company plans to add charging stations for freight vehicles, such as the coal trucks owned by energy company Eskom, which alone emit 230,000 tonnes of CO2 annually.

Source: See endnote 147 for this module.

FIGURE 21.Planned Distribution of Electric Vehicle Chargers Across South Africa

FIGURE 21.
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Several electric aircraft designed to carry small numbers of passengers over relatively short distances are under development. 151 As of May 2023, US-based Eviation, which successfully completed the maiden flight of its “Alice” commuter plane in September 2022, had 253 aircraft orders valued at more than USD 2 billion. 152

For maritime transport, electricity is currently used mainly in pleasure boats and for short-haul shipping such as ferries, using battery or hybrid systems. More than 70 electric ferries are in operation in Norway, with others under construction. 153 Several ferry connections in Asia, Denmark, Sweden and the United States also have been electrified in recent years. 154 For freight, the first electric vessels have started operations but are not yet common. 155 A key challenge in the shift towards alternative drive technologies in shipping is long vessel life spans (30 to 45 years or more), leading to slow turnover. 156

Another area for electrification is the provision of onshore power during docking. Conventionally, ship motors are kept running to generate the required electricity, burning the heavy fuel oil still used in most vessels and emitting both greenhouse gases and high levels of air pollutants. 157 Many ports, especially in Europe and North America, provide the opportunity for berthed ships to connect to the local power supply (often driven by regulation), and more ports globally are planning or considering this. 158 In the US state of California, most larger vessels are required to reduce emissions during berthing, effectively promoting onshore electricity supply. 159 In the EU, onshore power will become mandatory for container ships and passenger ships at major EU ports by 2030 and the rest by 2035. 160

Rail is the most electrified transport mode, with electricity accounting for just over 45% of the sector's total energy consumption in 2022, up from 39% in 2010. 161 In 2022, 85% of all rail passengers were transported by electric rail, compared with only 55% for rail freight. 162 In most countries, rail is the transport sector with the highest renewable energy share. 163

In addition to electrification of rail lines, many rail operators are actively generating or sourcing renewable power. Indian Railways, one of the largest rail operators globally, has a target for net zero emissions by 2030 and has already installed solar PV at many of its rail stations. 164 (See Snapshot: India.) As of October 2023, Indian Railways had commissioned 211 megawatts (MW) of solar PV and 103 MW of wind power, as well as securing 2,150 MW of further renewable energy capacity. 165 In July 2023, the French railway operator SNCF signed a power purchase agreement to obtain 88 gigawatt-hours annually of renewable electricity. 166

Renewable Hydrogen

Most of the direct use of hydrogen in transport today is through fuel cell electric vehicles, and hydrogen use will likely continue mainly in the road sector for the coming years (although at much lower levels than battery electric vehicles). 167 Despite hydrogen's lower efficiency compared to the direct use of electricity, its applicability for long distances and its rapid speed of re-fuelling make it an attractive option for decarbonising transport modes where direct electrification can be a challenge, such as for heavy-duty vehicles, vessels and aircraft. 168

Snapshot.INDIA

Electrifying the Railway Sector: India's Renewable Energy Transition on the Right Track

Since 2014, India's national railway system, Indian Railways, has undergone a monumental electrification drive, surging ahead at a rate nine times faster than the preceding decade and becoming India's largest consumer of electricity. As of early 2024, the country had electrified around 40,000 kilometres of railway lines across 14 states and Union Territories, funded largely by the Central Organization for Railway Electrification (CORE).

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Electrifying the Railway Sector: India's Renewable Energy Transition on the Right Track

Since 2014, India's national railway system, Indian Railways, has undergone a monumental electrification drive, surging ahead at a rate nine times faster than the preceding decade and becoming India's largest consumer of electricity. As of early 2024, the country had electrified around 40,000 kilometres of railway lines across 14 states and Union Territories, funded largely by the Central Organization for Railway Electrification (CORE).

Indian Railways has pledged to achieve 100% electrification by mid-2024, and in 2021 the Ministry of Railways released a policy document outlining the system's objectives for achieving this goal. As of January 2024, 94% of Indian Railways' lines had been electrified, and the company was determined to electrify the remaining 6,000 kilometres of railway by mid-year. The rapid electrification of rail in India has far outpaced other regions, with the share of electrified rail reaching 56% in the EU, 38% in the United Kingdom and only 1% in the United States as of the end of 2023.

The success of India's electrification surge is attributed to a convergence of factors including expedited permitting processes; streamlined engineering, procurement and construction efforts; decentralised decision making; and assured funding. Since 2014, the country has spent more than USD 5.5 billion (464.25 billion INR) on railway electrification. This substantial investment aims to support greater energy independence for India and to alleviate the burden of substantial crude oil imports. As of 2023, the country's import dependency on oil and oil-equivalent gas was 78.6%, and total spending on these fuels was USD 100 billion between April and December 2023 alone.

So far, India's rapid electrification of rail has not resulted in significant decarbonisation, as around 70% of the country's electricity continues to come from coal rather than from renewable energy sources. However, Indian Railways aims to reach net zero carbon emissions by 2030 and to supply all its energy requirements (projected at more than 33 billion units) mainly through the use of solar power and other renewable technologies. With government support, the company has already commissioned around 211 MW of solar plants and 103 MW of wind power plants, with an overall target of reaching 20 GW generated by solar plants on vacant railway land by 2030.

In tandem with its commitment to renewables, Indian Railways is prioritising energy-efficient technologies such as three-phase electric locomotives, head on generation (HOG) technology, and LED lights in coaches and railway buildings.

Source: See endnote 164 for this module.

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By the end of 2022, an estimated 58,000 hydrogen fuel cell cars and vans were on the world's roads, compared to more than 25 million battery electric cars. 169 Around 15,000 fuel cell cars were sold during the year, increasing the total stock by 40%. 170 Two-thirds of this growth was in the Republic of Korea, followed by the United States and Japan. 171 Although Korean manufacturers continue to dominate the market, other automakers are introducing fuel cell vehicle offerings: for example, BMW launched its iX5 pilot fleet in 2022, and the Moroccan start-up NamX presented a fuel cell sport utility vehicle (SUV) that can be fuelled in part by replaceable hydrogen capsules. 172

The market for fuel cell buses also continued to grow, reaching 6,200 vehicles by the end of 2022, 87% of which were in China. 173 The number of fuel cell trucks surged more than 60% during the year, to total 7,100 vehicles, with 95% of these in China. 174 The market for fuel cell trucks and buses is more diverse than for cars, with multiple companies offering truck models and around 20 companies producing fuel cell buses. 175 There are also efforts to retrofit diesel combustion engines to use hydrogen, and to develop pure hydrogen or dual-fuel combustion models, mostly for cars and trucks. 176

No commercial models for hydrogen aircraft were available in 2023, although several companies were developing prototypes. Airbus aims to bring a hydrogen-powered commercial aircraft to the market by 2035, with a range of up to 2,000 kilometres and a capacity of up to 200 passengers. 177 A Dutch consortium plans to launch the first hydrogen-fuelled flight of 40-80 passengers as early as 2028. 178

For maritime transport, the development of hydrogen combustion engines is ongoing, including dual-fuel engines (diesel and hydrogen) and full hydrogen vessels. 179 In 2022, the Norwegian Maritime Authority approved the development by HAV Hydrogen of a containerised, deck-based fuel cell system to support propulsion and to provide on-board electricity while under way and at port; the system can be retrofitted to existing vessels and was in its final development phase as of late 2023. 180 Shipbuilders also are working on fuel cell container ships, mostly for shorter distances. 181 For passenger transport, the world's first liquid hydrogen fuel cell ferry started operating in Norway in March 2023, followed by others during the year. 182

Overall, the transport sector consumed around 32 kilotonnes of hydrogen in 2022, representing 0.003% of global hydrogen use. 183 However, only 0.1% of transport hydrogen was produced through electrolysis, which can potentially be powered by renewable electricity. 184 Another 0.6% was produced using fossil fuels with carbon capture and storage. 185 Rising interest in hydrogen for aviation fuel alone could increase hydrogen demand by 1 million tonnes by 2030. 186 Demand for hydrogen will likely grow in sectors beyond transport, creating resource competition. The use of hydrogen in transport will only be renewable – delivering emission reduction benefits ii – if the share of production based on renewable electricity or bioprocesses is greatly increased. 187 (See Renewables in Energy Supply Module.)

Hydrogen-based Fuels

If renewable hydrogen is used, a variety of fuels based on hydrogen can be considered renewable. These fuels are produced by combining hydrogen with carbon that is captured either from the air or from industrial sites. Some of these fuels, called drop-in e-fuels, have the same properties as their fossil fuel counterparts and can be used in existing motors and with current fuelling infrastructure, with limited constraints. Others, such as methanol, offer alternatives to fossil fuels but require investment in new infrastructure and vehicle technologies. Combining hydrogen with nitrogen produces ammonia, which can be used as a fuel. Methanol and ammonia are discussed mainly as alternatives to fossil fuels in shipping. 188 Further processing of these fuels typically requires additional energy and adds cost. 189

0.1% of the hydrogen consumed in transport in 2022 was produced through electrolysis.

To achieve a 10% share of hydrogen-based fuels in aviation and shipping by 2030, an estimated 2,100 terawatt-hours of renewable electricity would be required, or more than India's total electricity generation in 2022. 190 Production capacity and supply chains would need to expand rapidly. As of 2023, however, most of the 70-plus production plants in operation globally to produce hydrogen from electrolysis (which is then used to obtain hydrogen-based fuels) were still at a demonstration scale, producing less than 20 kilotonnes of hydrogen iii . 191 Announced projects for renewable hydrogen could increase production to nearly 14 million tonnes by 2030, with 90% of the projects aiming to produce ammonia and the majority (nearly 8 million tonnes) still in the early stages of development. 192

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Footnotes

i For a discussion of the environmental and social implications of biofuels and other renewable energy technologies, see REN21's Renewable Energy and Sustainability Report, https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/REN21-RESR-2023_LowRes.pdf.

ii If hydrogen from non-abated fossil hydrogen is used, the greenhouse gas emissions from fuel cell vehicles could be higher than from internal combustion engines using diesel or petrol. See endnote 187 for this module.

iii Quantities of e-fuels in this section are given in hydrogen-equivalent terms, i.e., the “stoichiometric” hydrogen requirement to produce the e-fuel.

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