Challenges and Opportunities Challenges Transport energy use and emissions keep increasing owing to rising demand for transportation, mainly due to increasing freight transport demand driven by economic growth. Sufficient renewable electricity supply is key to decarbonise the sector through electric mobility and green hydrogen-based fuels. Investment in renewable fuels production capacity requires clear and stable policy support through government incentives for biofuels such as blending mandates. Opportunities Decarbonisation of transport modes along with a reduction of total energy demand in the sector can create multiple benefits for energy security, air quality, health, safety and access to mobility. Electrification offers economic opportunities for local manufacturing and supply chains. An increasing range of heavy-duty and long-distance electric vehicles open up new opportunities for freight and buses. 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https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/transport/itf-transport-outlook-2023_b6cc9ad5-en.120 International Transport Forum, “ITF Transport Outlook 2023”, 2023, https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/transport/itf-transport-outlook-2023_b6cc9ad5-en.121 International Energy Agency, “World Energy Balances”, 2023, https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-product/world-energy-balances, all rights reserved, as modified by the Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21).122 International Energy Agency, “World Energy Balances”, 2023, https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-product/world-energy-balances, all rights reserved, as modified by the Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21).123 Figure 20 from International Energy Agency, “World Energy Balances”, 2023, https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-product/world-energy-balances, all rights reserved, as modified by the Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21).124 International Energy Agency, “World Energy Balances”, 2023, https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-product/world-energy-balances, all rights reserved, as modified by the Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21).125 International Energy Agency, “World Energy Balances”, 2023, https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-product/world-energy-balances, all rights reserved, as modified by the Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21).126 International Energy Agency, “World Energy Balances”, 2023, https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-product/world-energy-balances, all rights reserved, as modified by the Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21).127 International Energy Agency, “The Role of E-fuels in Decarbonising Transport”, December 2023, https://www.iea.org/reports/the-role-of-e-fuels-in-decarbonising-transport.128 International Energy Agency, “The Role of E-fuels in Decarbonising Transport”, December 2023, https://www.iea.org/reports/the-role-of-e-fuels-in-decarbonising-transport.129 International Energy Agency, “The Role of E-fuels in Decarbonising Transport”, December 2023, https://www.iea.org/reports/the-role-of-e-fuels-in-decarbonising-transport.130 European Commission, “Delegated Regulation - 2023/1640 - EN - EUR-Lex”, 5 June 2023, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=OJ:JOL_2023_205_R_0001; European Technology and Innovation Platform, ‘Sustainable Feedstocks for Advanced Biofuels and Intermediate Bioenergy Carriers Production in Europe', accessed 16 May 2024, https://www.etipbioenergy.eu/value-chains/feedstocks/biofuels-feedstocks-an-overview.131 International Energy Agency, “The Role of E-fuels in Decarbonising Transport”, December 2023, https://www.iea.org/reports/the-role-of-e-fuels-in-decarbonising-transport.132 Repsol, “Repsol to Exceed 600 Service Stations with Renewable Fuel in 2024”, 16 January 2024, https://www.repsol.com/en/press-room/press-releases/2024/repsol-to-exceed-600-service-stations-with-renewable-fuel/index.cshtml.133 Repsol, “Repsol to Exceed 600 Service Stations with Renewable Fuel in 2024”, 16 January 2024, https://www.repsol.com/en/press-room/press-releases/2024/repsol-to-exceed-600-service-stations-with-renewable-fuel/index.cshtml.134 City of New York, “Mayor Adams Unveils Plan to Make NYC First East Coast City to Transition City's Heavy-duty Fleet Vehicles to Renewable Fuel”, 29 November 2023, https://www.nyc.gov/office-of-the-mayor/news/908-23/mayor-adams-plan-make-nyc-first-east-coast-city-transition-city-s-heavy-duty-fleet. 135 Nordsol, “FirstBio2Shipping”, 10 January 2024, https://nordsol.com/cases/wilp. 136 Maersk, “Maersk Secures Green Methanol for Maiden Voyage of the World's First Methanol-enabled Container Vessel”, 13 June 2023, https://www.maersk.com/news/articles/2023/06/13/maersk-secures-green-methanol; OCI, “OCI HyFuels Powers the First Green Methanol-powered Container Ship”, 27 September 2023, https://oci-global.com/news-stories/stories/celebrating-the-first-green-methanol-powered-container-ship-fueled-by-oci-hyfuels. 137 International Energy Agency, “Net Zero Roadmap: A Global Pathway to Keep the 1.5 °C Goal in Reach. 2023 Update”, September 2023, https://prod.iea.org/reports/net-zero-roadmap-a-global-pathway-to-keep-the-15-0c-goal-in-reach.138 C. Nairn, “As Exxon Bows Out, Industry Takes Step Toward Sustainable Algae Biofuels”, Mongabay, 9 May 2023, https://news.mongabay.com/2023/05/as-exxon-bows-out-industry-takes-step-toward-sustainable-algae-biofuels. 139 A. Westervelt, “Big Oil Firms Touted Algae as Climate Solution. Now All Have Pulled Funding”, The Guardian, 17 March 2023, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/mar/17/big-oil-algae-biofuel-funding-cut-exxonmobil. 140 International Energy Agency, “Global EV Data Explorer”, accessed 10 January 2024, https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/global-ev-data-explorer. 141 International Energy Agency, “Global EV Data Explorer”, accessed 10 January 2024, https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/global-ev-data-explorer.142 International Energy Agency, “Global EV Data Explorer”, accessed 10 January 2024, https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/global-ev-data-explorer.143 International Energy Agency, “Global EV Data Explorer”, accessed 10 January 2024, https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/global-ev-data-explorer. 144 International Energy Agency, “Global EV Outlook 2023”, April 2023,https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2023.145 Mobility for Africa, accessed 25 March 2024, https://mobilityforafrica.com; I. Kalulu, “Hamba! Solar-powered Tricycles Offer Solution to Transport Problems in Rural Zimbabwe”, news24, 6 May 2023, https://www.news24.com/fin24/climate_future/solutions/hamba-solar-powered-tricycles-offer-solution-to-transport-problems-in-rural-zimbabwe-20230506; Xinhua, “(Hello Africa) Rural Women Drive Zimbabwe's Green Transition”, 1 June 2023, https://english.news.cn/20230601/7bcd6c162c0c4c6283b04d6059dbe672/c.html. 146 Zero Carbon Charge, “Zero Carbon Charge Starts Construction on First National Network of 100% Renewable Energy Powered EV Charging Stations”, 20 November 2023, https://charge.co.za/zero-carbon-charge-starts-construction-on-first-national-network-of-100-renewable-energy-powered-ev-charging-stations. Snapshot: South Africa from the following sources: GDP and trade shares from Julia Evans, “Shift to Renewable Energy Vital for Electric Vehicle Transition, Says Minister Patel”, Daily Maverick, 4 December 2023, https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2023-12-04-rapid-shiftto-renewable-energy-vital-for-electric-vehicle-transition-says-minister-patel; exports from Julian Turner, “Under the Hood of South Africa's Auto Industry”, Investment Monitor, 11 July 2023, https://www.investmentmonitor.ai/sponsored/under-the-hood-of-south-africas-auto-industry, from Virusha Subban, “South Africa: Electric Vehicles White Paper”, Baker & McKenzie, accessed 30 January 2024, https://insightplus.bakermckenzie.com/bm/industrials-manufacturingtransportation/south-africa-electric-vehicles-white-paper, and from Department of Trade, Industry and Competition, Republic of South Africa, “Electric Vehicles White Paper”, November 2023, https://www.thedtic.gov.za/wp-content/uploads/EV-White-Paper.pdf; EV sales globally and in South Africa from Albertus Scholtz et al., “Insights Into Electric Vehicle Market Growth in South Africa: A System Dynamics Approach”, South African Journal of Industrial Engineering 34, no. 3 (2023): 13-27, and from Evans, op. cit. this note; domestic EV production from Adekunle Agbetiloye, “South Africa Plans to Roll Out Its First EVs in 2026”, Business Insider Africa, 6 December 2023, https://africa.businessinsider.com/local/markets/south-africa-plans-to-roll-out-its-first-evs-in-2026/g8x8f2r; national EV transition from Department of Trade, Industry and Competition and from Evans, op. cit. this note; Mineral Resources & Energy, Republic of South Africa, “Integrated Resource Plan December 2023”, 2023, https://www.energy.gov.za/IRP/2023/IRP-2023-for-Public-Comments-User-friendly.pdf; slow charging times and 350 stations from Evans, op. cit. this note; Sibahle Malinga, “Load-Shedding Could Curb Electric Vehicle Market”, ITWeb, 7 October 2022, https://www.itweb.co.za/article/load-shedding-could-curb-electric-vehiclemarket/Pero37Z33BZMQb6m; low climate benefits from Evans, op. cit. this note; coal reliance from Bernard Kengni, “Transition from Coal to Renewables: Is South Africa Ready?” University of Cape Town, 15 February 2023, https://law.uct.ac.za/mineral-law/articles/2023-02-15-transition-coalrenewables-south-africa-ready, and from David Pilling, “The Cost of Getting South Africa to Stop Using Coal”, Financial Times, 2 November 2022, https://www.ft.com/content/3c64950c-2154-4757-bf25-d93c7850be8f; transport sector emissions from Andries Malherbe, “Transition to Net Zero Offers Major Opportunities for Green Growth”, IOL, 2024, https://www.iol.co.za/businessreport/economy/transition-to-net-zero-offers-major-opportunities-for-green-growth-cc5f5252-f56b-4dc8-bee3-8dcfa5379752; Remeredzai Joseph Kuhudzai, “Zero Carbon Charge Starts Construction on First National Network of 100% Solar-Powered EV Charging Stations in South Africa”, CleanTechnica, 20 November 2023, https://cleantechnica.com/2023/11/20/zero-carbon-charge-starts-constructionon-first-national-network-of-100-solar-powered-ev-charging-stations-in-south-africa; network plans from Malherbe, op. cit. this note; Figure 21 from Myles Illidge, ‘Goodbye Eskom — R1 Billion Deal to Bring Fastest off-Grid Car Chargers to South Africa', MYBROADBAND (blog), 2024, https://mybroadband.co.za/news/energy/524140-goodbye-eskom-r1-billion-deal-to-bringfastest-off-grid-car-chargers-to-south-africa.html; Kuhudzai, op. cit. this note; Hanno Labuschagne, “South Africa's First Eskom-Free Electric Car Charging Station Launching Soon”, 21 January 2024, https://mybroadband.co.za/news/motoring/522309-south-africas-first-eskom-freeelectric-car-charging-station-launching-soon.html; coal trucks from C.C. De Saxe et al., “High Capacity Coal Trucks to Reduce Costs and Emissions at South Africa's Power Utility”, Research in Transportation Business & Management 48 (June 2023): 100898, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rtbm.2022.100898.147 Figure 22 from data generated using International Energy Agency, “Global EV Data Explorer”, accessed 10 January 2024, https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/global-ev-data-explorer; Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21), “Renewables 2019 Global Status Report”, 2019, https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/gsr_2019_full_report_en.pdf; Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21), “Renewables 2024 Global Status Report: Global Overview”, 2024, https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/GSR2024_GlobalOverview_Full_Report_with_endnotes_web.pdf.148 Data generated using International Energy Agency, “Global EV Data Explorer”, accessed 10 January 2024, https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/global-ev-data-explorer; Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21), “Renewables 2019 Global Status Report”, 2019, https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/gsr_2019_full_report_en.pdf; Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21), “Renewables 2024 Global Status Report: Global Overview”, 2024, https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/GSR2024_GlobalOverview_Full_Report_with_endnotes_web.pdf.149 Data generated using International Energy Agency, “Global EV Data Explorer”, accessed 10 January 2024, https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/global-ev-data-explorer; Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21), “Renewables 2019 Global Status Report”, 2019, https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/gsr_2019_full_report_en.pdf; REN21, Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21), “Renewables 2024 Global Status Report: Global Overview”, 2024, https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/GSR2024_GlobalOverview_Full_Report_with_endnotes_web.pdf.150 Casey Crownhart, "The Runway for Futuristic Electric Planes Is Still a Long One”, MIT Technology Review, 14 March 2023, https://www.technologyreview.com/2023/03/14/1069724/futuristic-electric-planes-evtols. 151 DHL, “Electricity Is in the Air as E-cargo Planes Take Flight”, accessed 30 January 2024, https://www.dhl.com/global-en/delivered/sustainability/electric-aircraft-sustainable-logistics.html; Dayna Fedy-Macdonald, “Orders for Eviation Alice All-electric Aircraft Now Valued at over US$4 Billion”, Skies, 11 May 2023, https://skiesmag.com/news/orders-eviation-alice-all-electric-aircraft-valued-over-4-billion. 152 Niels Anner, “The Electrification of Europe's Ferry Fleet”, Siemens Energy, 12 August 2022, https://www.siemens-energy.com/global/en/news/magazine/2022/the-electrification-of-europes-ferry-fleet.html. 153 International Transport Forum, “Decarbonisation, Coastal Shipping and Multimodal Transport: Summary and Conclusions”, 2023, https://www.itf-oecd.org/sites/default/files/docs/decarbonisation-coastal-shipping-multimodal-transport.pdf. 154 Yara, “Yara to Start Operating the World's First Fully Emission-Free Container Ship”, 19 November 2023, https://www.yara.com/corporate-releases/yara-to-start-operating-the-worlds-first-fully-emission-free-container-ship; Sustainable Ships, “COSCO 700 TEU Full Electric Container Ship”, 2023, https://www.sustainable-ships.org/stories/2023/cosco-700-teu-full-electric-container-ship; International Transport Forum, “Decarbonisation, Coastal Shipping and Multimodal Transport: Summary and Conclusions”, 2023, https://www.itf-oecd.org/sites/default/files/docs/decarbonisation-coastal-shipping-multimodal-transport.pdf. 155 Infineon, “Why Future Will Run on Electricity”, 2021, https://www.infineon.com/cms/en/discoveries/electrified-ships. 156 World Ports Sustainability Programme, “Onshore Power Supply”, accessed 7 February 2024, https://sustainableworldports.org/ops.157 Duffy D. and J. Bollermann, “Onshore Power Raises Simple Questions with Complex Answers”, LR, 1 June 2023, https://www.lr.org/en/knowledge/horizons/june-2023/onshore-power-raises-simple-questions-with-complex-answers; European Alternative Fuels Observatory, “OPS Infrastructure at Maritime Ports in Europe”, 2023, https://alternative-fuels-observatory.ec.europa.eu/transport-mode/maritime-sea/ports-and-infrastructure.158 California Air Resources Board, “Ocean-Going Vessels At Berth Regulation”, accessed 30 January 2024, https://ww2.arb.ca.gov/our-work/programs/ocean-going-vessels-berth-regulation. 159 European Parliament, “Fit for 55: Deal on New EU Rules for Cleaner Maritime Fuels”, 23 March 2023, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20230320IPR77909/fit-for-55-deal-on-new-eu-rules-for-cleaner-maritime-fuels. 160 International Energy Agency, “Rail”, July 2023, https://www.iea.org/energy-system/transport/rail.161 International Energy Agency, “Rail”, July 2023, https://www.iea.org/energy-system/transport/rail.162 Ministry of Railways, “Indian Railways to Become Net Zero Carbon Emitter by 2030”, 25 March 2023, https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1907230.163 S. Anand, “Indian Railways Commissions 211 MW Solar, 103 MW Wind Power; Electrifies 60,814 km of Tracks”, Energyworld, 2 January 2024, https://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/renewable/indian-railways-commissions-211-mw-solar-103-mw-wind-power-electrifies-60814-km-of-tracks/106463134. Snapshot: India based on the following sources: electrification rates from Nick Ferris, “How India Electrified 45% of Its Railway Network in Just Five Years”, Energy Monitor, 2 February 2024, https://www.energymonitor.ai/newsleGers/how-india-made-45-of-its-railway-network-electric-in-just-fiveyears; Indian Railways, “Central Organization for Railway Electrification (CORE)”, 2016, https://core.indianrailways.gov.in; Indian Railways, “Mission 100% Electrification Moving Towards Net Zero Carbon Emission”, 2021, https://indianrailways.gov.in/railwayboard/uploads/directorate/secretary_branches/IR_Reforms/Mission%20100%25%20Railway%20Electrification%20-%20Moving%20towards%20Net%20Zero%20Carbon%20Emission.pdf; 94% from Ferris, op. cit. this note; 6,000 kilometres from Subhash Narayan, “Railways on Track to Meet Target of 100% Electrification by Dec”, mint, 28 July 2023, https://www.livemint.com/news/india/railways-on-track-tomeet-target-of-100-electrification-by-dec-11690543908598.html; other regions, expenditure, import dependency and coal reliance from Ferris, op. cit. this note; net zero emissions from PIB Delhi, “Indian Railways Set to Meet All Its Energy Consumption Needs of More than 33 Billion Units by 2030”, Ministry of Railways, 27 August 2020, https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1648937; Anand Saurav, “Indian Railways Commissions 211 MW Solar, 103 MW Wind Power; Electrifies 60,814 Km of Tracks”, ETEnergyworld.com, 2 January 2024, https://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/renewable/indianrailways-commissions-211-mw-solar-103-mw-wind-power-electrifies-60814-km-of-tracks/106463134; solar plants from PIB Delhi, op. cit. this note; energy eYiciency from Saurav, op. cit. this note.164 Ministry of Railways, “Indian Railways to Become Net Zero Carbon Emitter by 2030”, 25 March 2023, https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1907230. 165 E. Dailey, “SNCF and CNR Sign the Largest Wind Energy PPA in France”, Railtech, 12 July 2023, https://www.railtech.be/fr/infrastructure/2023/07/12/sncf-et-cnr-signent-le-plus-grand-ppa-eolien-en-france.166 International Energy Agency, “Global Hydrogen Review 2023”, September 2023, https://www.iea.org/reports/global-hydrogen-review-2023. 167 SLOCAT Partnership on Sustainable, Low Carbon Transport, “SLOCAT Transport, Climate and Sustainability Global Status Report – 3rd Edition”, 2023, https://tcc-gsr.com.168 International Energy Agency, “Global Hydrogen Review 2023”, September 2023, https://www.iea.org/reports/global-hydrogen-review-2023; International Energy Agency, “Global EV Data Explorer”, accessed 10 January 2024, https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/global-ev-data-explorer. 169 International Energy Agency, “Global Hydrogen Review 2023”, September 2023, https://www.iea.org/reports/global-hydrogen-review-2023.170 International Energy Agency, “Global Hydrogen Review 2023”, September 2023, https://www.iea.org/reports/global-hydrogen-review-2023. 171 International Energy Agency, “Global Hydrogen Review 2023”, September 2023, https://www.iea.org/reports/global-hydrogen-review-2023; BMW, “Launch of the BMW iX5 Hydrogen Pilot Fleet”, February 2023, https://www.bmwgroup.com/en/news/general/2023/BMWiX5Hydrogen.html. 172 International Energy Agency, “Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV) Stock by Region and by Mode, 2022”, 2022, https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/fuel-cell-electric-vehicle-fcev-stock-by-region-and-by-mode-2022. 173 International Energy Agency, “Global Hydrogen Review 2023”, September 2023, https://www.iea.org/reports/global-hydrogen-review-2023. 174 International Energy Agency, “Global Hydrogen Review 2023”, September 2023, https://www.iea.org/reports/global-hydrogen-review-2023. 175 International Energy Agency, “Global Hydrogen Review 2023”, September 2023, https://www.iea.org/reports/global-hydrogen-review-2023. 176 Airbus, “ZEROe – Low carbon aviation”, accessed 7 February 2024, https://www.airbus.com/en/innovation/low-carbon-aviation/hydrogen/zeroe. 177 SLOCAT Partnership on Sustainable, Low Carbon Transport, “SLOCAT Transport, Climate and Sustainability Global Status Report – 3rd Edition”, 2023, https://tcc-gsr.com.178 MAN-ES, “Hydrogen“, 11 January 2024, https://www.man-es.com/marine/strategic-expertise/future-fuels/hydrogen; Rachel Parkes, “Ship with Hydrogen-powered Two-stroke Engine Gets Technical Green Light”, Hydrogen Insight, 20 October 2023, https://www.hydrogeninsight.com/transport/-world-first-ship-with-hydrogen-powered-two-stroke-engine-gets-technical-green-light/2-1-1538892; Marine Insight, “Yanmar Technology Initiates Hydrogen Fueled 4 Stroke Engine Development”, Marine Insight, 10 January 2024, https://www.marineinsight.com/shipping-news/yanmar-technology-initiates-hydrogen-fueled-4-stroke-engine-development; N. Blenkey, “MAN Partners Up to Develop Hydrogen-fueled Medium-speed Engine Concepts”, 12 October 2023, https://www.marinelog.com/news/man-partners-up-to-develop-hydrogen-fueled-medium-speed-engine-concepts.179 HAV Hydrogen, “HAV Group Receives Preliminary Approval for Hydrogen-based Energy System for Ships”, 6 May 2022, https://www.havhydrogen.no/news/2022/hav-group-receives-preliminary-approval-for-hydrogen-based-energy-system-for-ships. 180 MAN Energy Solutions, “Hydrogen-Powered Feeder Container Vessels to Be Equipped With MAN 175D GenSets”, 21 November 2023, https://www.man-es.com/company/press-releases/press-details/2023/11/21/hydrogen-powered-feeder-container-vessels-to-be-equipped-with-man-175d-gensets.181 A. Bergenson, “Norled H2 Ferry Sails into Operation, Completing World-first Achievement”, 5 April 2023, https://www.hydrogenfuelnews.com/norled-h2-ferry-operation/8558031; International Energy Agency, “Global Hydrogen Review 2023”, September 2023, https://www.iea.org/reports/global-hydrogen-review-2023. 182 International Energy Agency, “Global Hydrogen Review 2023”, September 2023, https://www.iea.org/reports/global-hydrogen-review-2023. 183 International Energy Agency, “Global Hydrogen Review 2023”, September 2023, https://www.iea.org/reports/global-hydrogen-review-2023. 184 International Energy Agency, “Global Hydrogen Review 2023”, September 2023, https://www.iea.org/reports/global-hydrogen-review-2023.185 International Energy Agency, “Net Zero Roadmap: A Global Pathway to Keep the 1.5 °C Goal in Reach. 2023 Update”, September 2023, https://prod.iea.org/reports/net-zero-roadmap-a-global-pathway-to-keep-the-15-0c-goal-in-reach. 186 Kirill Durkin et al., “Hydrogen-Powered Vehicles: Comparing the Powertrain Efficiency and Sustainability of Fuel Cell versus Internal Combustion Engine Cars”, Energies 17, no. 5 (2024): 1085, https://doi.org/10.3390/en17051085.187 International Energy Agency, “The Role of E-Fuels in Transport”, December 2023, https://www.iea.org/reports/the-role-of-e-fuels-in-decarbonising-transport. 188 Elena C. Blanco et al., 'Methanol and Ammonia as Emerging Green Fuels: Evaluation of a New Power Generation Paradigm', Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 175 (1 April 2023): 113195, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2023.113195.189 International Energy Agency, “The Role of E-Fuels in Transport”, December 2023, https://www.iea.org/reports/the-role-of-e-fuels-in-decarbonising-transport; Ember, “Electricity Data Explorer | Open Source Global Electricity Data”, accessed 30 January 2024, https://ember-climate.org/data/data-tools/data-explorer. 190 International Energy Agency, “The Role of E-Fuels in Transport”, December 2023, https://www.iea.org/reports/the-role-of-e-fuels-in-decarbonising-transport. 191 International Energy Agency, “The Role of E-Fuels in Transport”, December 2023, https://www.iea.org/reports/the-role-of-e-fuels-in-decarbonising-transport. 192