RENEWABLES 2024
GLOBAL STATUS REPORT

Renewables in Energy Supply

2024

Solar Thermal Heating

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Key Facts
Solar Thermal Heating

  • The global market for solar thermal collectors contracted 7.2% in 2023, to reach a newly installed capacity of 21 GWth .
  • Small-scale systems have lost market share in several regions, but demand for large-scale projects has risenin recent years.
  • Globally, 337 large-scale solar thermal district heating systems, with total capacity exceeding 1.9 GWth, were operating by the end of 2023.
  • In 2023, 116 solar industrial heat plants (SHIP) began operation, bringing the global total to at least 1,209 installations supplying process heat.
  • Solar thermal heating technologies continued to face market competition due to a lack of awareness and an imbalance in incentives.

Solar thermal collectors absorb radiation from the sun and transform it into useful thermal energy for various heat i applications, ranging from domestic water and space heating to high-temperature heat and steam for industrial processes. In 2023, the global solar heat market contracted 7.2% to reach a newly installed capacity of an estimated 21 gigawatts-thermal (GWth) ii ,continuing the downward slide since 2013 (excepting 2021). 1 Sales grew strongly in several markets including the United Kingdom (up 65%), Mozambique (40%), India (27%), South Africa (12.4%), Lebanon (11.2%) and Greece (10%). 2 However, sales declined in several traditionally strong markets, such as China and much of Europe iii . 3

By year's end, millions of residential, commercial and industrial clients in at least 134 countries were benefiting from solar thermal heating systems. 4 Cumulative global capacity in operation increased 3% in 2023, reaching an estimated 560 GWth (800 million square metres, m2, of collector area iv ). 5 (See Figure 31.) The total global capacity of solar water collectors in operation was enough to provide around 456 terawatt-hours of heat annually, equivalent to the energy content of 268 million barrels of oil. 6

Despite energy price volatility in recent years, solar thermal continued to face fierce market competition due to a lack of awareness of solar thermal options and an imbalance in policies and utility incentives in many countries. 7 The competition was mainly from solar photovoltaics (PV) but also from heat pumps and (less so) from biomass boilers, both of which offer stand-alone solutions for hot water and/or space heating. 8 As a result, small-scale solar thermal systems have lost market share across much of Europe, the United States and China. 9 Meanwhile, demand for large-scale projects has risen, with several multi-megawatt plants under construction for commercial and industrial clients. 10

Top Country Markets

The top markets in 2023 were China, India, Brazil, Türkiye and the United States.

China remained the largest market for solar thermal systems of all types and accounted for around 65% of annual sales of solar water collectors in 2023, followed by India, Brazil, Türkiye and the United States; Greece, Australia, Mexico, Germany and Italy rounded out the top 10. 11 (See Figure 32.) At year's end, China accounted for 73% of cumulative world solar thermal capacity, followed distantly by Türkiye, the United States, Brazil, Germany and India. 12 For total capacity per capita, the top countries in 2022 were Barbados, Cyprus, Israel, Austria and Greece. 13

China's solar thermal sales continued the decline that began in 2014 (except for a slight rise in 2021), falling 8.5% in 2023. 14 An estimated 13.7 GWth began operation for a year-end total of 410.1 GWth. 15 The drop was attributed to the country's real estate crisis and economic slowdown. 16 By 2023, China's energy savings from the use of solar thermal technologies exceeded an estimated 1.1 billion tonnes of standard coal. 17

Sales of vacuum tube collectors in China fell 8.5% to 10.2 GWth, accounting for three-quarters of total sales, while flat plate sales declined 11.8% to 3.6 GWth. 18 The engineered market v (76.3%) continued to dominate, although its share was down from 83% in 2022, and the retail market accounted for the rest. 19 Water heating remained the primary use for solar thermal systems in China, although the market for space heating continued to expand (up 11%). 20

India's market grew 27% in 2023, moving the country into second place for new installations.

Following a significant (21%) decline in 2022, India's solar thermal market grew 27% in 2023, moving the country into second place globally for new installations. 21 India's increase was due largely to an easing of the financial system after the COVID-19 pandemic, although falling solar PV prices and India's net metering system have continued to make rooftop-generated electricity more desirable than solar heat generation on roofs. 22 The country added 1.3 GWth for an estimated total of 14.8 GWth. 23 Sales of vacuum tube collectors rose 24% after a decline in 2022, whereas flat plate collector sales rose 79%, in a positive note for a stressed domestic manufacturing industry. 24

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FIGURE 31Solar Water Heating Collectors Global Capacity, by Type, 2014-2023

FIGURE 31

Note: Data are rounded to nearest GWth. Data are for glazed and unglazed solar water collectors and do not include concentrating, air or hybrid collectors.

Source: See endnote 5 for this section.

Closely behind India, Brazil added a record 1.28 GWth (1.83 million m2) of solar thermal systems in 2023, with unglazed collectors for swimming pools accounting for 47% of the newly installed collector area. 25 The market for collectors expanded 2.8% in 2023, following a 2.1% decline in 2022. 26 The smaller-than-expected increase was due to economic uncertainties and a lack of financing and public incentives. 27 By region, Brazil's south-east accounted for 65% of sales, and the largest market nationally remained the residential sector (84%). 28 Brazil's total operating capacity grew 8% in 2023, to 16.8 GWth (24 million m2). 29

Most solar thermal systems in Türkiye are residential water heaters; however, systems also have been installed in hotels, hospitals, and other facilities, ranking the country second after China for the number of large systems in operation. 30 The payback periods for solar thermal along the Mediterranean coast are relatively short due to high irradiation and a good match between hot water demand and the high solar yield season. 31 In 2023, Türkiye added 1.26 GWth (1.8 million m2) for a cumulative capacity of 19.4 GWth. 32 A 2.6% market decline was due mainly vi to high inflation and to damage from the February earthquake, which affected more than 10 south-eastern cities. 33

The United States ranked fifth for solar thermal sales in 2023 (adding 417 megawatts-thermal, MWth), bringing the total installed capacity to 18.2 GWth. 34 New installations fell 32.7% relative to 2022. 35 Despite federal and state incentives, the US market has declined steadily over several years for glazed systems used for residential and commercial heating due to a focus on heat pumps, electrification of heat and solar PV. 36 An exception is Hawaii, which dominates the glazed collector market and where one-in-four homeowners use solar systems to heat water. 37 In 2023, 95% of the US market was for unglazed collectors (396 MWth), putting the country second after Brazil for new solar pool heating systems. 38

Australia followed for installation of unglazed collectors, ranking third, and placed seventh globally for total solar thermal additions in 2023, despite a 8.4% decline. 39 Australia installed 312.5 MWth (446,421 m2), with unglazed collectors representing nearly 74% of additions. 40 The state of Victoria accounted for around 40% of the national market due to a mandate for solar thermal systems on new homes. 41 At year's end, Australia had an estimated 6.6 GWth (9.5 million m2) in operation. 42

Mexico placed eighth among the top 10 markets of 2023. The country installed 309 MWth (441,590 m2), up 5.1%, for a total of 4.5 GWth. 43 Mexico also has a large unglazed collector market, accounting for nearly 27% of 2023 additions. 44

FIGURE 32.Solar Water Heating Collector Additions, Top 20 Countries for Capacity Added, 2023

FIGURE 32.

Note: Additions represent gross capacity added. Growth rates of annual market are rounded to the nearest whole number.

Source: See endnote 11 for this section.

The remaining top 10 solar thermal countries were all in Europe. Unlike in many other large markets (including Türkiye, Brazil and India), where solar water heaters are cost-effective compared to electricity-driven solutions, in most European countries (and much of the United States) financial incentives are still needed to reduce upfront investment costs, due to higher equipment and labour costs and in some cases lower solar resources. 45 In 2023, market strength varied considerably across Europe, with improvements in countries with balanced policies and incentives but substantial contractions in countries supporting solar PV and heat pumps. 46 Falling fossil gas prices towards the end of the year also affected markets for most heating technologies. 47

Greece passed Germany to rank sixth globally and to lead in Europe for new installations. 48 The country added a record 323 MWth (460,300 m2), bringing the total to 4 GWth (5.7 million m2). 49 Annual installations were up 10%, following a 17% increase in 2022. 50 The Greek market has been driven largely by high electricity prices and a desire to shift away from fossil fuels. 51

In Europe's other top markets, annual installations declined in 2023. In Germany, which placed second in Europe and ninth globally, annual sales were down sharply (46%), following three years of stability or growth. 52 An estimated 51,000 solar thermal systems were added, totalling 266 MWth (380,000 m2). 53 While the energy crisis of 2022 brought increased interest in solar thermal for space and water heating, this interest dropped off in 2023. 54 Slower demand combined with the dismantling of old systems meant that total operating capacity barely rose, reaching an estimated 15.8 GWth (22.6 million m2).55 Germany's heat production from solar thermal collectors fell around 6%, due largely to a decline in average solar radiation. 56

After two years of explosive growth (43% in 2022 and 83% in 2021), following a decade of decline, Italy's solar thermal market again contracted. 57 Sales fell 33% in 2023 to 151.4 MWth (216,288 m2), for a total of 3.9 GWth (5.6 million m2) in operation. 58 The large drop was due to a change in the Superbonus subsidy scheme, delays in Italy's economic recovery plan and a general decline in heating installations. 59 Other traditionally strong markets in Europe, including Poland (-38%) and Spain (-26%), also witnessed substantial market contractions in 2023, as solar hot water systems struggled to compete with alternatives. 60

District Heating

Although most solar thermal capacity installed globally continued to provide water heating in individual buildings, the use of solar thermal technology in district heating continued to expand. Under favourable conditions, solar thermal energy is a cost-effective vii option for decarbonising urban district heat systems. 61 In 2023, China was the leading market for newly installed collector area, followed by Germany, Austria and Denmark. 62 By year's end, a documented 337 large-scale viii solar thermal district heating systems were operating worldwide, with a total capacity exceeding 1.9 GWth (2.73 million m2); many of these systems include storage capacity to address seasonal variability. 63

China reported commissioning five systems for district heating in 2023, with a combined collector area of 147,206 m2 (103 MWth). 64 Four of the projects, completed in Tibet, are among the 20 largest solar district heating systems in the world and have a combined capacity of 102 MWth. 65 By the end of 2023, China had 72 solar district heating systems in operation, for a total capacity of 503 MWth (718,670 m2). 66

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Across Europe, 266 of the around 6,000 cities and towns with district heating systems were feeding solar heat into their grids as of mid-2023. 67 The largest number of systems at year's end was in Denmark (124), followed by Germany (55), Sweden (23) and Austria (20). 68

Germany's district heating market continued to build on the 30% growth in collector area that occurred in 2022. 69 In 2023, seven large-scale plants were completed with a combined collector area of 22,794 m2 (16 MWth), mostly for district heat systems in small towns and municipalities. 70 As of early 2024, Germany had 55 plants (112 MWth) in operation, 9 systems (79 MWth) in the realisation phase and 70 systems (277 MWth) in preparation. 71 The market for solar thermal in district heating has been driven by the technology‘s potential to achieve climate protection goals while stabilising prices and improving energy security. 72 Local energy co-operatives have initiated a growing number of projects ix . 73

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In 2023 and early 2024, Germany began construction on plants in Bad Rappenau (20 MWth) and Leipzig (45.5 MWth), the latter of which will generate more than triple the output of the country's largest operating system x . 74 Increasingly, suppliers of large turnkey solar thermal plants in Germany are guaranteeing minimum yields to reduce investor risk. 75

Austria ranked third globally for new installations in 2023, thanks to two extensions to existing projects. 76 A total of 2,173 m2 of collector area (1.5 MWth) was added to solar district heating systems in St. Ruprecht/Raab and in the city of Mürzzuschlag. 77 The plants fall under a subsidy scheme granted by Austria's Climate and Energy fund for large solar collector fields. 78

Denmark added only one solar thermal district heating system (2,000 m2) in 2023, following the addition of one system in 2022, for a year-end total exceeding 1.1 GWth (1.6 million m2). 79 Long the leader in annual installations, Denmark's market collapsed in 2020 after significant changes in policy and funding conditions, and as of 2023 the country had fallen to fourth globally for newly installed large-scale plants. 80

Although most solar district heating systems are installed in Europe and China, systems also are operating in Canada, Japan, the Kyrgyz Republic, the Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, South Africa and the United States. 81 Solar thermal is more efficient at meeting low-temperature heat needs than a heat pump or solar PV system used for the same purpose. 82 Despite its potential, solar thermal in district heating faces obstacles including a lack of awareness about its benefits; challenges finding suitable sites near heat demand; and lengthy and costly permitting processes, which have caused bottlenecks across Europe. 83

Industrial Heat

Industrial heat accounts for almost 20% of global energy consumption and relies heavily on fossil fuels, but there is growing interest in solar thermal energy, particularly for industries that are difficult to decarbonise. 84 Around the world, companies are turning to renewable heat solutions, including solar heat technologies, to meet social and environmental goals and to achieve energy price stability xi . 85

Across industries, supply chains require direct heat or steam for a range of processes xii . 86 Solar thermal technologies provide emission-free low-temperature (below 150 degrees Celsius, °C) or medium-temperature (150-400°C) heat in the form of hot water, air flow or steam xiii . 87

In 2023, 116 solar industrial heat plants (SHIPs) began operation; although the number of projects remained the same as in 2022, the capacity installed in 2023 (94 MWth) more than tripled xiv . 88 By year's end, at least 1,209 SHIP installations, totalling 951 MWth, were supplying process heat to factories worldwide. 89 Food and beverage industries had the largest number of systems (199), and the mining sector had the largest share (47%) of total operating capacity. 90

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116 SHIP systems were added for a total of at least 1,209 operating worldwide.

Individual SHIP projects have gotten larger, and the share of systems with temperatures above 100°C has grown rapidly. 91 The type of collectors is determined in part by required temperatures, with air collectors, flat plate and evacuated tube collectors xv providing temperatures up to 100°C, and concentrating collectors providing temperatures up to 400°C. 92 In 2023, at least eight different technology types xvi were installed; the share of concentrating collectors in newly added capacity increased to 43% of collector area (up from 21% in 2022 and 22% in 2021). 93

The top countries for newly commissioned SHIP projects were unchanged, although shifts occurred in the rankings xvii : the Netherlands remained well in the lead with 43 new systems added, followed by Mexico, Germany, China and France. 94 Spain installed by far the greatest amount of capacity (49.2 MWth), followed by France and China (11.1 MWth each), the Netherlands (6.8 MWth) and Belgium (3.9 MWth). 95 The top European countries have implemented support systems, whereas Mexico and China have long been top markets without direct subsidies thanks to very cost-effective systems. 96

Among significant projects that began operations in 2023 were Europe's largest SHIP plant, a 30 MWth (plus 68 megawatt-hours of storage) concentrating system in Seville, Spain, which is expected to reduce fossil gas consumption by more than 60% at Heineken España's facility; a 13 MWth (with 3,000 m2 of storage) system at a whey production facility for a global dairy manufacturer (Lactalis) in France; and the world's largest solar concentrating dish unit – to replace biomass briquettes for production of steam for cooking, sterilisation and laundry – at a hospital in Gujarat, India. 97

SHIP remains a challenging sector because awareness of the options remains low, clients typically want short payback periods, and projects require significant lead time xviii . 98 Heat purchase agreements, which minimise the market risk for investors, are increasingly common, particularly for large-scale plants using concentrating collectors. 99 Heat purchase agreements have moved SHIP into new markets. 100 In 2023, for example, such agreements were signed for large SHIP plants (totalling 154 MWth) for Chile's copper mining sector. 101

As of early 2023, there were 68 SHIP suppliers from 25 countries. 102 Relative to 2022, 10 companies shifted their portfolios or closed down, and 7 companies were added. 103 Although the potential for growth is significant, it is challenging to build a sustainable market with the long sales cycle for industrial clients, rising interest rates, competition from solar PV and heat pumps, and low fossil gas prices in many countries. 104 In Mexico, for example, the highly competitive SHIP market has traditionally been strong, but it suffered in 2023 from falling gas prices. 105

GlassPoint (United States), which restarted operations in 2022 following liquidation in 2020, has deployed more than half of all solar steam systems for industry and helped accelerate use of the energy-as-a-service model. 106 In 2023, the company announced a partnership with Saudi Arabia to build a manufacturing facility for projects across the country and for export, and broke ground on the Ma'aden project xix , which is expected to be five times larger than any existing solar heat facility. 107

Numerous start-ups, including Heliovis (Austria) and SolarSteam (Canada), also are innovating in this sector, scaling up production capabilities and initiating commercial projects. 108

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As in other sectors, there is a growing interest in combining SHIP systems with thermal energy storage. 109 More than 30 companies (mostly start-ups), based in at least 12 countries, are providing high-temperature thermal storage to meet rapidly expanding demand. 110 A wide range of technologies xx can store heat from a few hours to several days, making it possible for concentrating solar thermal systems to provide 24-hour heat, or to store surplus electricity from the grid using power-to-heat solutions for industrial clients. 111 Several companies put commercial storage into operation in 2023, while others announced that their first commercial plants were under construction. 112

PV-Thermal Technologies

PV-Thermal xxi (PVT) technologies convert solar energy into both electricity and thermal energy for applications spanning from single households to industry, with temperatures ranging from around – 20°C to 150°C. 113 The heat can be used directly or via secondary systems, such as heat pumps. 114

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More than 30 companies are providing high-temperature thermal storage for SHIP systems.

There is rising interest in PVT, particularly across Europe, with steady market growth from 2017 through 2021. 115 However, following a slump (down 52%) in 2022 – due to discontinued subsidies, inflation and the war in Ukraine – the market contracted further in 2023. 116 Systems completed in 2023 included those for a swimming pool club in Barcelona, Spain, apartments in Switzerland, an industrial customer in the Netherlands and a nursing home in Germany (the latter two systems are combined with heat pumps). 117 Worldwide, an estimated 56,967 m2 (29.5 MWth, 14.5 MWpeak) was added in 2023, bringing the global capacity in operation to nearly 1.6 million m2 (822 MWth, 292 MWpeak), up from just over 1 million m2 in 2017. 118 The majority of this capacity was in Europe (led by France), followed by Asia. 119

To meet anticipated future demand, Abora Solar (Spain) commissioned an assembly line in 2023 to increase PVT production. 120 As of early 2024, Sunmaxx PVT (Germany) was constructing a new production plant, and other established manufacturers had announced significant new production capacities. 121

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Footnotes

i Solar thermal energy also can be used for cooling and chilling purposes, but this remains a niche market.

ii Global data are for solar thermal water collectors (glazed and unglazed) only.

iii Traditionally strong markets that experienced declines in 2023 included Germany (-46%), Poland (-38%), Italy (-33%), the United States (-32.7%), Spain (-26%), Austria (-21.6%), Portugal (-15%), Denmark (-12%), Cyprus (-9.7%), China (-8.5%), Australia (-8.4%) and Türkiye (-2.6%). See endnote 3 for this section.

iv Conversion from square metres (m2) to capacity uses a factor of 0.7 kilowatts-thermal (kWth) per m2 based on the agreement of international solar thermal experts in Gleisdorf, Austria in 2004.

v Chinese statistics characterise systems as either standardised small residential solar water heaters or “engineered” systems, which include larger systems used in, for example, industry, agriculture, public institutions and residential housing projects.

vi Subsidies for fossil gas (zero-cost up to 25 cubic metres), provided to every household monthly through much of the year, also probably affected sales, although the impact is difficult to measure. See endnote 33 for this section.

vii Solar thermal can provide costs in the range of USD 22-55.2 (EUR 20-50) per MWh under favourable conditions, well below the prices customers pay for district heating. See endnote 61 for this section.

viii Solar district heating systems are considered to be large-scale if they are more than 350 kilowatts-thermal (500 m2). Globally, 600 large-scale solar thermal systems were in operation at the end of 2023, with a total installed capacity of 2,370 MWth (3.4 million m2), including systems for heating large residential, commercial and public buildings. See endnote 63 for this section.

ix In September 2023, Germany introduced a federal subsidy for efficient heating networks that includes large-scale solar thermal projects and is available to municipalities, energy suppliers and energy communities. See endnote 73 for this section.

x The largest German system in operation at the end of 2023 was in Greifswald, at 13.1 MWth (18,732 m2).

xi Significant energy price volatility has increased interest in solar thermal solutions; however, those same price fluctuations have slowed decision processes as industrial companies are uncertain about at what level it is most attractive to lock in a price. See endnote 85 for this section.

xii Industries include chemical (boiling, distilling), food and beverage (drying, boiling, pasteurising, sterilising), machinery (cleaning, drying), mining (copper electrolytic refining, mineral drying, nitrate melting), textile (washing, bleaching, dying) and wood (e.g., steaming, compressing, drying).

xiii Solar thermal collectors and sorption chillers also can provide cold energy, down to -40C, for process refrigeration, although this is still a niche market. See endnote 87 for this section.

xiv More capacity was added during 2017 and 2019 because of very large installations during those years in Oman and China.

xv In addition, stationary collectors with vacuum as insolation can achieve temperatures higher than 100°C. See endnote 92 for this section.

xvi These included parabolic trough (38% of collector area, up from 12% in 2022), vacuum tube (26%), air collectors (17%), flat plate (12%, down from 39% in 2022), linear Fresnel (4%), PVT (1%), high-temperature flat plate (1%) and concentrating dish (0.6%). See endnote 93 for this section.

xvii The Netherlands led in 2022 for number of systems added, followed by China, France, Mexico and Germany. See endnote 94 for this section.

xviii In addition to project contracting, planning and construction, industry decisions have been slowed by as much as 6-12 months because many potential consumers want to apply for government subsidies, even when solar thermal systems are offered at a competitive price. See endnote 98 for this section.

xix The plant will replace fossil gas in the refining of bauxite into alumina, and is expected to reduce the company's carbon footprint by an estimated 50%, with the aim of helping to decarbonise the aluminium supply chain in Saudi Arabia. See endnote 107 for this section.

xx The technologies used depend on required temperatures, with some solutions able to store at temperatures up to around 2,000°C. For temperatures above 565°C, systems use solid materials such as sand, graphite, concrete blocks, granite or even steel rods. See endnote 111 for this section.

xxi PVT systems perform like flat plate solar thermal collectors but with slightly lower thermal performance because PV cells absorb some of sunlight; the cooling effect on solar PV cells offsets any output losses due to front glass. See endnote 113 for this section.

  1. Based on preliminary data for gross additions (21.04 GWth, 30.1 million m2), from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme (IEA SHC), 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide, and from M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, March–May 2024. The global market also shrank in 2022, following seven years of decline and a slight increase in 2021, from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2022, Detailed Market Figures 2021, 2023 Edition”, IEA SHC, May 2023, pp. 8, 10, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide. Note that the conversions throughout use a conversion factor of 0.7 kilowatts-thermal (kWth) per m2, based on the agreement of international solar thermal experts in Gleisdorf, Austria, in 2004, from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide”, 2024, op. cit. this note.1
  2. W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme (IEA SHC), 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide; W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2022, Detailed Market Figures 2021, 2023 Edition”, IEA SHC, May 2023, pp. 8, 10, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide; M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, March–May 2024; India also from J. Malaviya, Malaviya Solar Energy Consultancy, cited in B. Epp, “Signs of Growth in India Solar Thermal Market”, Solar Thermal World, 3 April 2024, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/signs-of-growth-in-indian-solar-thermal-market; A. Fadlallah, Lebanese Center for Energy Conservation, Ministry of Energy and Water, personal communication with REN21, 2 May 2024. Note that markets were up 69.3% and 12% in the United Kingdom and Greece, respectively, and 8% in France, from L. Mico, Solar Heat Europe, personal communication with REN21, 15 May 2024.2
  3. Based on data for 2022 and 2023 from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide, and from M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, March–May 2024, which relied on data also from the following: Germany from BSW Solar, “Statistische Zahlen der deutschen Solarwärmebranche (Solarthermie)”, February 2024, https://www.solarwirtschaft.de/datawall/uploads/2024/02/2024_01_BSW_Solar_Faktenblatt_Solarwaerme.pdf; United States from B. Heavner, CALSSA, Sacramento, California, provided by Spörk-Dür, op. cit. this note; China also based on data from Chinese Solar Thermal Industry Federation, “2023 China Solar Thermal Industry Operation Status Report”, 8 December 2023, https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/sfgpH30oJEJGEcnkFhPfww (using Google Translate); Australia from D. Ferrari, Exemplary Energy, provided by Spörk-Dür, op. cit. this note; Türkiye from K. Ülke, Bural Heating, Kayseri, Türkiye, personal communication with REN21, 2-3 May 2024. 3
  4. Based on number of countries covered by Solarthermalworld.org, which has reported on solar thermal sales activities in at least 134 countries worldwide, from B. Epp, personal communication with REN21, 6 May 2024.4
  5. Based on 560.1 GWth at the end of 2023 and on 542 GWth at the end of 2022, for a net increase in 2023 of around 18 GWth, from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme (IEA SHC), 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide, and from M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, March-May 2024. The difference between annual installations and net additions is due to assumed statistical collector lifetime of 25 years, from idem. Figure 31 from the following: global solar thermal capacity for glazed and unglazed water collectors is based on historical data from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends, Detailed Market Figures”, multiple editions, IEA SHC, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide, and on REN21, “Renewables Global Status Report 2022”, 2022, Figure 40, p. 138, https://www.ren21.net/reports/global-status-report; data for 2023 are from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. this note, and are based on the latest market data from the following solar thermal markets: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bhutan, Brazil, China, Cyprus, Denmark, Germany, Greece, India, Italy, Lebanon, Mexico, Nepal, Poland, South Africa, Spain, Switzerland, Türkiye, the United Kingdom and the United States. These markets represented 95% of the cumulative installed capacity in operation in 2022, from Spörk-Dür, op. cit. this note. The difference between annually installed capacity and net annual additions for most countries is the capacity subtracted each year to account for the assumed collector lifetime (generally 25 years), all from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. this note and from Spörk-Dür, op. cit. this note.5
  6. Figure of 456 TWh from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide, and from M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, March–May 2024. Equivalence of 456 TWh and 268 million barrels of oil equivalent from Kyle's Converter, https://www.kylesconverter.com/energy,-work,-and-heat/terawatt-hours-to-barrels-of-oil-equivalent.6
  7. Energy price volatility from, for example, Statista, “Monthly Fossil Fuel Price Indices Worldwide in Select Months from January 2022 to April 2024, by Fuel”, 13 May 2024, https://www.statista.com/statistics/1348739/monthly-fossil-fuel-price-indices-worldwide, and Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, “Global Price of Energy Index, January 1, 1992-April 1, 2024”, updated 7 May 2024, https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/PNRGINDEXM. Solar thermal challenges from, for example: P. Dias, Solar Heat Europe, personal communication with REN21, 17 March 2023; F. Stier, “Producers Point to Forced Electrification and Cheap Natural Gas as Barriers for Solar Thermal in the US”, Solar Thermal World, 30 August 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/producers-point-to-forced-electrification-and-cheap-natural-gas-as-barriers-for-solar-thermal-in-the-us.7
  8. P. Dias, Solar Heat Europe, personal communication with REN21, 17 March 2023; B. Epp, “High Interest in PV and Heat Pumps Has Reduced Collector Sales in India”, Solar Thermal World, 14 March 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/high-interest-in-pv-and-heat-pumps-has-reduced-collector-sales-in-india; J. Malaviya, Malaviya Solar Energy Consultancy, cited in B. Epp, “Signs of Growth in India Solar Thermal Market”, Solar Thermal World, 3 April 2024, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/signs-of-growth-in-indian-solar-thermal-market; F. Stier, “Producers Point to Forced Electrification and Cheap Natural Gas as Barriers for Solar Thermal in the US”, Solar Thermal World, 30 August 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/producers-point-to-forced-electrification-and-cheap-natural-gas-as-barriers-for-solar-thermal-in-the-us; E. Engelniederhammer, “Polish Heating Device Market with Interesting Ups and Downs”, Solar Thermal World, 28 July 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/31237; A.D. Rosell, “Spain's Solar Thermal Market Impacted by Various New Policies”, Solar Thermal World, 23 June 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/spains-solar-thermal-market-impacted-by-various-new-policies. In Australia, heat pumps are challenging solar thermal for both the residential hot water market and for pool heating, from D. Ferrari, Exemplary Energy, personal communication with REN21, 5 May 2023. In some countries, the increasing use of biomass boilers might be pushing solar thermal out of the agenda of residential house owners; however, in Austria and Germany, the combination of biomass plus solar thermal is considered a good option for a renewable heating system, from B. Epp, solrico, personal communication with REN21, 6 May 2024.8
  9. W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide; F. Stier, “Producers Point to Forced Electrification and Cheap Natural Gas as Barriers for Solar Thermal in the US”, Solar Thermal World, 30 August 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/producers-point-to-forced-electrification-and-cheap-natural-gas-as-barriers-for-solar-thermal-in-the-us; see also B. Epp, “‘Large-scale Plants Are a New League That Solar Companies Alone Cannot Handle'”, Solar Thermal World, 23 April 2024, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/large-scale-plants-are-a-new-league-that-solar-companies-alone-cannot-handle. 9
  10. B. Epp, solrico, personal communication with REN21, 10 May 2023. See, for example, the following: B. Epp, “Welcome to a New Year and Another Chance for Solar Heat to Get Big”, Solar Thermal World, 17 January 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/welcome-to-a-new-year-and-another-chance-for-solar-heat-to-get-big; F, Stier, “Feasibility Studies for Large Solar Heat Plants Totalling Almost 1 Million M2 Underway”, Solar Thermal World, 6 April 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/feasibility-studies-for-large-solar-heat-plants-totalling-almost-1-million-m2-underway; B. Epp, “Big Solar Heat Deal in the Chilean Copper Sector Made Possible by Two People”, Solar Thermal World, 23 February 2024, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/big-solar-heat-deal-in-the-chilean-copper-sector-made-possible-by-two-people; B. Epp, “Construction Imminent on 77 MW Solar Heat Plant for Leisure Resort”, Solar Thermal World, 30 April 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/construction-imminent-on-77-mw-solar-heat-plant-for-leisure-resort; B. Epp, “37 MW Solar District Heating Plant in the Netherlands with Outstanding Features”, Solar Thermal World, 11 November 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/37-mw-solar-district-heating-plant-in-the-netherlands-with-outstanding-features.10
  11. Top countries in 2023, China's share (65.2%) and Figure 32 based on data from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide, and from M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, March–May 2024, as well as on data from country contributors provided in endnote 3, and on data for Brazil from D. Johann, Associação Brasileira de Energia Solar Térmica (ABRASOL), personal communication with REN21, 2 April 2024, and from ABRASOL, “Solar Heating Systems Production and Sales 2024 (Database 2023)”, May 2024, https://abrasol.org.br/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Solar-Heating-Systems-Production-and-Sales-2024.pdf. Data for top 20 countries are based on the latest market data available for gross additions of glazed and unglazed water collectors (not including concentrating, PV-thermal and air collectors), at the time of publication, for countries that together represent around 95% of the world total. In 2022, the top countries for new installations were China, Türkiye, Brazil, India and the United States, from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. this note. 11
  12. Share (73.2%) of cumulative capacity in China based on Chinese Solar Thermal Industry Federation, “2023 China Solar Thermal Industry Operation Status Report”, 8 December 2023, https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/sfgpH30oJEJGEcnkFhPfww (using Google Translate), and on totals for China and the world from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide, and from M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, March–May 2024; top five countries and ranking based on data from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. this note, from Spörk-Dür, op. cit. this note, and on additions and cumulative data for top 20 countries from sources cited throughout this section.12
  13. W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2022, Detailed Market Figures 2021, 2023 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, May 2023, p. 9, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide. 13
  14. W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide; M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, March–May 2024; Chinese Solar Thermal Industry Federation, “2023 China Solar Thermal Industry Operation Status Report”, 8 December 2023, https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/sfgpH30oJEJGEcnkFhPfww (using Google Translate). 14
  15. China added 13,727.3 MWth (including 3,554.6 MWth flat plate and 10,172.7 MWth of vacuum tubes) in 2023 for a year-end total of 410.1 GWth, from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide, from M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, March–May 2024, and based on data from Chinese Solar Thermal Industry Federation (CSTIF), “2023 China Solar Thermal Industry Operation Status Report”, 8 December 2023, https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/sfgpH30oJEJGEcnkFhPfww (using Google Translate). China added 21.898 million m2 of collector area (15.3 GWth) in 2023 for a year-end total of 628 million m2 (628 GWth), from CSTIF, idem. Note that CSTIF data include vacuum tube collectors that were exported; Weiss and Spörk-Dür assume that all vacuum tube collectors in the world market were from China, with the exception of those from three companies producing vacuum tubes in Türkiye; they also assume 15-year lifespans for collectors in China, from Spörk-Dür, op. cit. this note.15
  16. Chinese Solar Thermal Industry Federation, “2023 China Solar Thermal Industry Operation Status Report”, 8 December 2023, https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/sfgpH30oJEJGEcnkFhPfww (using Google Translate). 16
  17. Figure of 1.1 billion based on 1.096 billion tonnes (and 30,484 GWh of electricity), from Chinese Solar Thermal Industry Federation, “2023 China Solar Thermal Industry Operation Status Report”, 8 December 2023, https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/sfgpH30oJEJGEcnkFhPfww (using Google Translate).17
  18. W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide; M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, March–May 2024; Chinese Solar Thermal Industry Federation (CSTIF), “2023 China Solar Thermal Industry Operation Status Report”, 8 December 2023, https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/sfgpH30oJEJGEcnkFhPfww (using Google Translate). Sales of vacuum tubes accounted for 76.8% (16.82 million m2, 11.8 GWth) and flat plate sales fell 11.8% relative to 2022 and accounted for 23.2% (5.078 million m2, 3.6 GWth), from CSTIF, idem. 18
  19. Figure of 76.3% in the engineered market (and 23.7% in the retail market) in 2023 from Chinese Solar Thermal Industry Federation, “2023 China Solar Thermal Industry Operation Status Report”, 8 December 2023, https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/sfgpH30oJEJGEcnkFhPfww (using Google Translate); 83% in 2022 from Sun Realm Think Tank, “‘2022 China Solar Thermal Industry Operation Status Report' officially released”, 16 March 2023, https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/1jXYS-8iMpstP2-3ddSerw (using Google Translate). The 2022 shares are based on a sample survey of enterprises in several provinces and key regions of China, from Sun Realm Think Tank, idem.19
  20. Chinese Solar Thermal Industry Federation, “2023 China Solar Thermal Industry Operation Status Report”, 8 December 2023, https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/sfgpH30oJEJGEcnkFhPfww (using Google Translate).20
  21. Decline in 2022 based on data from J. Malaviya, Malaviya Solar Energy Consultancy, personal communication with REN21, March 2023; increase in 2023 based on data from J. Malaviya, Malaviya Solar Energy Consultancy, cited in B. Epp, “Signs of Growth in India Solar Thermal Market”, Solar Thermal World, 3 April 2024, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/signs-of-growth-in-indian-solar-thermal-market, from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide, and from M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, March–May 2024.21
  22. Based on data from J. Malaviya, cited in B. Epp, “Signs of Growth in India Solar Thermal Market”, Solar Thermal World, 3 April 2024, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/signs-of-growth-in-indian-solar-thermal-market.22
  23. Additions and year-end total (water collectors only) from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide, and from M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, March–May 2024. India ended 2023 with 21,181,710 m2 of collector area (4,304,426 m2 of flat plate and 16,877,284 m2 of vacuum tube) in operation, equivalent to 14.8 GWth, from both sources in this note. 23
  24. Based on data from J. Malaviya, cited in B. Epp, “Signs of Growth in India Solar Thermal Market”, Solar Thermal World, 3 April 2024, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/signs-of-growth-in-indian-solar-thermal-market.24
  25. Based on data from D. Johann, Associação Brasileria de Energia Solar Térmica (ABRASOL), personal communication with REN21, 2 April 2024, and from ABRASOL, “Solar Heating Systems Production and Sales 2024 (Database 2023)”, May 2024, https://abrasol.org.br/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Solar-Heating-Systems-Production-and-Sales-2024.pdf; record additions based on installations in 2021 and 2023, from ABRASOL, idem, and on 2021 installations then being a record high, from ABRASOL, “Produção de aquecedor solar de água cresce 28% em 2021”, Boletim 24, February 2022, https://abrasol.org.br/boletim-i-fevereiro-i-no24-2022-2 (using Google Translate). In 2023, Brazil added 925,065 m2 of glazed collector area, 862,311 m2 of unglazed collectors and 43,080 m2 of vacuum tube collectors (bringing total additions to 1,830,456 m2), from ABRASOL, “Solar Heating Systems…”, op. cit. this note.25
  26. Based on data from Associação Brasileria de Energia Solar Térmica (ABRASOL), “Solar Heating Systems Production and Sales 2024 (Database 2023)”, May 2024, https://abrasol.org.br/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Solar-Heating-Systems-Production-and-Sales-2024.pdf.26
  27. Based on data from Associação Brasileria de Energia Solar Térmica (ABRASOL), “Solar Heating Systems Production and Sales 2024 (Database 2023)”, May 2024, https://abrasol.org.br/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Solar-Heating-Systems-Production-and-Sales-2024.pdf. The industry had expected a 16% increase in 2023, from ABRASOL, “Produçäo e Vendas de Sistemas de Aquecimento Solar 2023, Base 2022”, 2023, p. 6, https://abrasol.org.br/pesquisa-de-producao-e-vendas.27
  28. Associação Brasileria de Energia Solar Térmica (ABRASOL), “Solar Heating Systems Production and Sales 2024 (Database 2023)”, May 2024, https://abrasol.org.br/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Solar-Heating-Systems-Production-and-Sales-2024.pdf. By region, the portion of sales in the south-east continued to increase, to 65% in 2023, followed by the south (20%), central-west (7%), north-east (5%) and north (3%); the residential sector was followed by the commercial/services (12%), industrial (3%) and social (1%) sectors, all from idem.28
  29. Figure of 8% based on a total of 22,796,314 m2 of collector area in operation at the end of 2022 and 24,626,770 m2 (17.2 GWth) at the end of 2023, from Associação Brasileria de Energia Solar Térmica (ABRASOL), “Solar Heating Systems Production and Sales 2024 (Database 2023)”, May 2024, https://abrasol.org.br/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Solar-Heating-Systems-Production-and-Sales-2024.pdf; cumulative capacity at end-2023 based on 24,022,177 m2 of collector area (including 10,103,248 m2 unglazed, 13,606,133 m2 flat plate, and 312,796 m2 of vacuum tube), equivalent to 16.8 GWth, from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide, and from M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, March–May 2024.29
  30. Importance of small-scale (residential) from Y. Akay, Solimpeks Solar Corp, personal communication with B. Epp, solrico, February 2022; second after China for large systems from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide. Türkiye had 18 large-scale systems (>350 kWth; 500 m2) with a total installed capacity of 14.2 MWth, from idem. 30
  31. Y. Akay, Solimpeks Solar Corp, personal communication with B. Epp, solrico, February 2022.31
  32. Additions in 2023 from K. Ülke, Bural Heating, Kayseri, Türkiye, personal communication with REN21, 2-3 May 2024. Newly installed flat plate collector area was 916,000 m2 (641.2 MWth) and newly installed vacuum tube collector area was 882,000 m2 (617.4 MWth), from idem. Year-end total from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide, and from M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, March–May 2024.32
  33. Figure of 2.6% based on 2023 data from K. Ülke, Bural Solar, Kayseri, Türkiye, personal communication with REN21, 2-3 May 2024; 2022 data from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide, Table 11; reasons for decline and fossil gas from Ülke, op. cit. this note. 33
  34. Additions based on data from B. Heavner, CALSSA, Sacramento, California, United States, provided by M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, 30 April 2024 (US new additions of vacuum tube collectors and thermosiphon systems were not available); ranking and estimated total year-end capacity of 25,958,118 m2 of collector area (including 22,786,415 m2 of unglazed, 2,994,975 m2 of flat plate, and 176,728 m2 of vacuum tubes), equivalent to 18.2 GWth, from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide, and from Spörk-Dür, op. cit. this note, March–May 2024.34
  35. Based on data for 2022 from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide, Table 11, and from B. Heavner, CALSSA, Sacramento, California, United States, provided by M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, 30 April 2024.35
  36. F. Stier, “Producers Point to Forced Electrification and Cheap Natural Gas as Barriers for Solar Thermal in the US”, Solar Thermal World, 30 August 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/producers-point-to-forced-electrification-and-cheap-natural-gas-as-barriers-for-solar-thermal-in-the-us. 36
  37. Hawaiian Electric, “Renewable Energy Sources – Solar Water Heating”, accessed 10 March 2024, https://www.hawaiianelectric.com/clean-energy-hawaii/our-clean-energy-portfolio/renewable-energy-sources/solar. An estimated 90,000 residential solar water heating systems in Hawaiian Electric Company's service territories from idem. Hawaii's market is strong for several reasons, including good solar resources and a solar mandate. See, for example, B. Epp, “Use Mandates to Boost Established Markets, But Not to Build Up New Ones”, Solar Thermal World, 23 October 2020, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/use-mandates-boost-established-markets-not-build-new-once. Importance of Hawaii also from B. Heavner, CALSSA, Sacramento, California, United States, provided by M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, 30 April 2024.37
  38. US unglazed based on 565,889 m2 of collector area installed in 2023, accounting for nearly 95% of the year's additions, based on data from B. Heavner, CALSSA, Sacramento, California, United States, provided by M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, 30 April 2024; Brazil from information and sources in this section.38
  39. Rankings and decline relative to 2022 based on data from D. Ferrari, Exemplary Energy, provided by M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, March–May 2024, and from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide. 39
  40. Australia based on an estimated 330,000 m2 of unglazed collector area installed in 2023, and total annual installations of 446,421 m2, from D. Ferrari, Exemplary Energy, provided by M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, March–May 2024. Australia added 312.5 MWth (including 69.3 MWth of glazed flat plate collectors, 12.2 MWth of vacuum tube collectors, and 231 MWth of unglazed collectors), from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide, and from Spörk-Dür, op. cit. this note.40
  41. Victoria mandate from D. Ferrari, Exemplary Energy, provided by M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, March–May 2024; year-end total from Spörk-Dür, idem. Note that changes to Victoria's regulations in 2023 permit heat pumps, which could affect the future market for solar thermal systems, from Ferrari, op. cit. this note.41
  42. Based on a year-end 2023 total of 9,480,832 m2 of collector area (including 5,939,832 m2 of unglazed, 3,269,000 m2 of flat plate, and 272,000 m2 of vacuum tubes), equivalent to 6.6 GWth, from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide, and from M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, March–May 2024. 42
  43. Mexico added 309 MWth (441,590 m2) in 2023, of which 82.7 MWth were unglazed (26.8% of newly installed in 2023), from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide, and from M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, March–May 2024; increase relative to 2022 and 2023 total from Spörk-Dür, idem. 43
  44. Based on data from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide; M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, March–May 2024.44
  45. B. Epp, solrico, personal communication with REN21, April 2022 and May 2023. For Italy, see, for example, R. Battisti, “Conto Termico: Good Incentive But with Room for Improvement”, Solar Thermal World, 25 April 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/conto-termico-good-incentive-but-with-room-for-improvement. 45
  46. L. Mico, Solar Heat Europe, personal communication with REN21, 15 May 2024. 46
  47. L. Mico, Solar Heat Europe, personal communication with REN21, 15 May 2024.47
  48. Ranking based on data from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide, and from M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, March–May 2024.48
  49. Based on 460,000 m2 of flat plate and 300 m2 of vacuum tube collector area installed during 2023, for a total glazed water collector area of 5,742,000 m2, from C. Travasaros, Greek Solar Industry Association (EBHE), provided by M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, March–May 2024; record additions based on increase in 2023 (from idem) and on record additions in 2022, from C. Travasaros, EBHE, personal communication with REN21, 29 January 2023.49
  50. Based on additions in 2023 from C. Travasaros, Greek Solar Industry Association (EBHE), provided by M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, March–May 2024, and record additions in 2022 of 293 MWth (419,000 m2) for an end-2022 total of 3.8 GWth (5.4 million m2), from C. Travasaros, EBHE, personal communication with REN21, 29 January 2023. The Greek market expanded 12% relative to 2022, from L. Mico, Solar Heat Europe, personal communication with REN21, 15 May 2024.50
  51. C. Travasaros, Greek Solar Industry Association (EBHE), personal communication with REN21, 11 April 2023.51
  52. Rankings and decline of 46% based on data from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide, and from M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, March–May 2024; three years of stability or growth based on data from German industry associations BSW Solar and BDH, cited in J.P. Meyer, “The German Solar Thermal Market Only Grew Slightly in the Energy Crisis Year 2022”, Solar Thermal World, 14 February 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/the-german-solar-thermal-market-only-grew-slightly-in-the-energy-crisis-year-2022. Germany's annual market held even in 2021 relative to 2020, in which the market expanded 26% over 2019, from Meyer, idem. Germany's market declined 47% in 2023, from L. Mico, Solar Heat Europe, personal communication with REN21, 15 May 2024.52
  53. BSW Solar, “Statistische Zahlen der deutschen Solarwärmebranche (Solarthermie)”, February 2024, https://www.solarwirtschaft.de/datawall/uploads/2024/02/2024_01_BSW_Solar_Faktenblatt_Solarwaerme.pdf. This compares with an estimated 91,000 systems installed in 2022, totalling 496 MWth (709,000 m2) in 2022, from German industry associations BSW Solar and BDH, cited in J.P. Meyer, “The German Solar Thermal Market Only Grew Slightly in the Energy Crisis Year 2022”, Solar Thermal World, 14 February 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/the-german-solar-thermal-market-only-grew-slightly-in-the-energy-crisis-year-2022, and from A. Liesen, BSW Solar, personal communication with REN21, 28 February and 2 March 2023. The 2022 additions were up from 448 MWth in 2021, from Meyer, op. cit. this note.53
  54. Geschäftsstelle der Arbeitsgruppe Erneuerbare Energien-Statistik (AGEE-Stat) am Umweltbundesamt, “Erneuerbare Energien in Deutschland: Daten zur Entwicklung im Jahr 2023”, Dessau-Roßlau, March 2024, p. 12, https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/publikationen/erneuerbare-energien-in-deutschland-2023.54
  55. Solar demand and total barely rose, from AGEE-Stat am Umweltbundesamt, “Erneuerbare Energien in Deutschland: Daten zur Entwicklung im Jahr 2023”, Dessau-Roßlau, March 2024, p. 12, https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/publikationen/erneuerbare-energien-in-deutschland-2023; year-end capacity of 22,581,092 m2 of collector area (including 392,640 m2 of unglazed, 19,520,910 m2 of flat plate, and 2,667,542 m2 of vacuum tubes), equivalent to 15.8 GWth, from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide, and from M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, March–May 2024. Note that year-end capacity was 22.15 million m2 (14.4 GWth), from BSW Solar, “Statistische Zahlen der deutschen Solarwärmebranche (Solarthermie)”, February 2024, https://www.solarwirtschaft.de/datawall/uploads/2024/02/2024_01_BSW_Solar_Faktenblatt_Solarwaerme.pdf. This capacity (in 2.6 million systems) was up from 22.07 million m2 and 2.58 million systems at the end of 2022, and 21.6 million m2 and 2.52 million systems at the end 2021; 2023 output accounted for 0.8% of Germany's total heat consumption, from BSW Solar, op. cit. this note. Strong incentives for heat pumps in Germany also played a role in the decline in Germany's solar thermal system installations during 2023, from L. Mico, Solar Heat Europe, personal communication with REN21, 15 May 2024.55
  56. AGEE-Stat am Umweltbundesamt, “Erneuerbare Energien in Deutschland: Daten zur Entwicklung im Jahr 2023”, Dessau-Roßlau, March 2024, pp. 12, 26, https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/publikationen/erneuerbare-energien-in-deutschland-2023; total heat energy output from solar thermal systems was 9,733 GWh in 2022 and 9,126 GWh in 2023, from idem, p. 21; Germany's systems produced 9.3 TWh-thermal of solar heat in 2023, from BSW Solar, “Statistische Zahlen der deutschen Solarwärmebranche (Solarthermie)”, February 2024, https://www.solarwirtschaft.de/datawall/uploads/2024/02/2024_01_BSW_Solar_Faktenblatt_Solarwaerme.pdf.56
  57. Figure of 43% in 2022 and decade of decline from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2022, Detailed Market Figures 2021, 2023 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2023, pp. 6, 58, 60, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide, and from M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, May 2023; up 83% in 2021 from R. Battisti, “Superbonus Has Pushed Solar Heat in Italy”, Solar Thermal World, 9 March 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/superbonus-has-pushed-solar-heat-in-italy.57
  58. Figure of 33% based on installations in 2022, from the following sources: W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2022, Detailed Market Figures 2021, 2023 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme (IEA SHC), 2023, pp. 6, 58, 60, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide; M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, May 2023; R. Battisti, “Superbonus Has Pushed Solar Heat in Italy”, Solar Thermal World, 9 March 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/superbonus-has-pushed-solar-heat-in-italy. Also based on 2023 installations of 151.4 MWth (including 136 MWth of flat plate, and 15.4 MWth of vacuum tube), and year-end total based on 5,561,908 m2 of collector area (including 43,800 m2 of unglazed, 4,786,330 m2 of flat plate, and 731,778 m2 of vacuum tubes), equivalent to 3.9 GWth, all from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, IEA SHC, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide, and from Spörk-Dür, op. cit. this note, March–May 2024.58
  59. Solar Heat Europe, provided by M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, March–May 2024; Italy's market contracted 31.4% in 2023, and the country is pushing strongly for solar PV plus heat pumps, which is affecting solar thermal heating demand, from L. Mico, Solar Heat Europe, personal communication with REN21, 15 May 2024.59
  60. Poland ranked fourth in Europe and its market contracted 38% in 2023 based on additions in 2022 of 210,000 m2 (147 MWth), from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2022, Detailed Market Figures 2021, 2023 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme (IEA SHC), 2023, pp. 6, 58, 60, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide, and on additions in 2023 of 130,800 m2 (91.6 MWth), from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, IEA SHC, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide, and from M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, March–May 2024. This followed increases in 2021 (17%) and 2022 (11%) from E. Engelniederhammer, “Polish Heating Device Market with Interesting Ups and Downs”, Solar Thermal World, 28 July 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/31237. Poland's market declined 37.7% in 2023, due in large part to the end of general incentives, from L. Mico, Solar Heat Europe, personal communication with REN21, 15 May 2024; Spain ranked fifth in Europe and its market contracted 26%, based on data (including additions in 2023 of an estimated 75.5 MWth) from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide”, 2023, op. cit. this note, and from Spörk-Dür, op. cit. this note. The decline in Spain was despite recent subsidies (up to 40% of system costs) to support renewable heat in buildings, public infrastructure, industry and elsewhere, with applications due by the end of 2023, from A.D. Rosell, “Spain's Solar Thermal Market Impacted by Various New Policies”, Solar Thermal World, 23 June 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/spains-solar-thermal-market-impacted-by-various-new-policies. The change was to Royal Decree 477, approved in 2021 and modified in 2022, from Rosell, idem. Struggle to compete based on, for example: challenged in Poland by strong policy emphasis on heat pumps and electrification, from Engelniederhammer, op. cit. this note, and on struggling in Spain to compete with solar PV and increasingly with heat pumps for hot water, despite being economically competitive, from Rosell, op. cit. this note.60
  61. W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide.61
  62. W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide. 62
  63. W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide. Large-scale systems also are being used for residential, commercial and public buildings, with many installed on hospitals, hotels and sports centres. At the end of 2023, 263 such systems were in operation, totalling 457 MWth (652,216 m2), mostly in China (155 systems, 355 MWth). Türkiye followed distantly with 18 systems (14.2 MWth), from idem. Year-end total installations of concentrating collector technologies (linear Fresnel, parabolic trough and dish) were reported by aperture area and converted into solar thermal capacity using the internationally accepted convention for stationary collectors, 1 million m2 = 0.7 GWth. 63
  64. W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide. China also installed 17 additional large-scale systems (totalling 147,794 m2) in the building sector, from idem.64
  65. Planenergi, Solarthermalworld.org, B. Epp and China Academy of Building Research, all cited in W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide, Table 1. These Tibetan projects were a 32 MWth (45,036 m2) project in Longzi, a 26 MWth (36,700 m2) project in Lazi, a 24 MWth (34,250 m2) project in Dingri, and a 20 MWth (28,356 m2 project in Seni, all from idem.65
  66. W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide.66
  67. B. Epp, “Solar District Heating Info Package for Cities and Towns”, Solar Thermal World, 22 June 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/solar-district-heating-info-package-for-cities-and-towns. 67
  68. Denmark, Sweden and Austria from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide, Figure 9; 55 systems in Germany from B. Epp, “District Heating Has Never Had Such a High Significance in Germany”, Solar Thermal World, 28 April 2024, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/district-heating-has-never-had-such-a-high-significance-in-germany.68
  69. W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide.69
  70. W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide.70
  71. B. Epp, “District Heating Has Never Had Such a High Significance in Germany”, Solar Thermal World, 28 April 2024, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/district-heating-has-never-had-such-a-high-significance-in-germany. At year's end, 51 systems, some with seasonal storage, were in operation across Germany; in addition, nine systems, totalling 19.6 MWth (28,000 m2) were under construction or in advanced planning, with another 66 systems totalling 318 MWth (454,550 m2) under concrete discussion, from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide. 71
  72. H. Huther, AGFW, cited in Solar Wärme Netze, “2022 Rekordjahr für solare Wärmenetze in Deutschland”, 28 March 2023, https://www.solare-waermenetze.de/2023/03/28/solare-waermenetze-in-betrieb-2023 (using Google Translate). 72
  73. F. Stier, “Successful Operator Models for Solar District Heating in Germany”, Solar Thermal World, 5 January 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/operator-models-for-solar-district-heating; F. Stier, “From LECs to TECs – Citizen Energy in Focus”, Solar Thermal World, 28 May 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/from-lecs-to-tecs-citizen-energy-in-focus. 73
  74. Bad Rappenau plant from B. Epp, “New Milestones on the German Solar District Heating Market”, Solar Thermal World, 21 July 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/new-milestones-on-the-german-solar-district-heating-market. The plant will meet the entire hot water demand of connected households in summer as well as all demand for the drying of animal feed, from idem. Leipzig plant and triple from Epp, op. cit. this note, from “Stadtwerke Leipzig Builds Germany's Largest Solar Thermal Plant”, International District Energy Association, 26 March 2024, https://www.districtenergy.org/blogs/district-energy/2024/03/26/stadtwerke-leipzig-builds-germanys-largest-solar-t, and from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide. Size of Greifswald plant from A. Liesen, BSW Solar, personal communications with REN21, 28 February and 2 March 2023, and from E. Augsten, “Will Smart District Heating Bring Solar Thermal Back Into Focus in Germany?” Solar Thermal World, 11 October 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/will-smart-district-heating-bring-solar-thermal-back-into-focus-in-germany. The Leipzig plant will supply around 26 GWh of heat per year, from Epp, op. cit. this note. 74
  75. J.P. Meyer, “Guaranteed Yields Are Standard for New Solar District Heating Plants in Germany”, Solar Thermal World, 19 October 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/guaranteed-yields-are-standard-for-new-solar-district-heating-plants-in-germany. 75
  76. W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide.76
  77. W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide.77
  78. B. Epp, solrico, personal communication with REN21, 6 May 2024. Austria also has a government campaign to encourage homeowners to renovate buildings and shift away from fossil boilers that, along with high energy prices, has led to a renewed interest in solar thermal for buildings not connected to district heat systems, from idem and from F. Stier, “Feasibility Studies for Large Solar Heat Plants Totalling Almost 1 Million m2 Underway”, Solar Thermal World, 6 April 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/feasibility-studies-for-large-solar-heat-plants-totalling-almost-1-million-m2-underway.78
  79. W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide, Figure 9.79
  80. W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide.80
  81. W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide Edition 2023”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme (IEA SHC), May 2023, p. 18, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide; W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, IEA SHC, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide.81
  82. C. Travasaros, Prime Laser Tec. and Solar Heat Europe, cited in F. Stier, “European Council Speeds Up Permission Procedures But Only for Solar Systems on Buildings”, Solar Thermal World, 2 February 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/european-council-speeds-up-permission-procedures-but-only-for-solar-systems-on-buildings. Solar thermal provides an estimated 3 times the energy yield per area of solar PV and 33 times that of biomass for heat, from International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, cited in Euroheat & Power and Solar Heat Europe (ESTIF), “The Rise of Solar District Heating”, webinar, 28 March 2023, p. 20, https://www.euroheat.org/data-insights/reports/the-rise-of-solar-district-heating-webinar. Another study estimates that solar thermal provides up to 43 times the energy yield per area of biomass and ethanol used for heat, from Fraunhofer ISE, PlanEnergi, and Chalmers University, cited in “Solar Thermal Shows Highest Energy Yield per Square Metre”, Solar Thermal World, 31 July 2017, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/solar-thermal-shows-highest-energy-yield-square-metre. Another source says up to four times solar PV and 50 times biomass, from E. Augsten, “Will Smart District Heating Bring Solar Thermal Back into Focus in Germany?” Solar Thermal World, 11 October 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/will-smart-district-heating-bring-solar-thermal-back-into-focus-in-germany.82
  83. Lack of awareness from F. Stier, “Feasibility Studies for Large Solar Heat Plants Totalling Almost 1 Million m2 Underway”, Solar Thermal World, 6 April 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/feasibility-studies-for-large-solar-heat-plants-totalling-almost-1-million-m2-underway, and from B. Epp, “Solar District Heating Solutions Providing Higher Temperatures”, Solar Thermal World, 4 December 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/solar-district-heating-solutions-providing-higher-temperatures; suitable sites and permitting from F. Stier, “Access to Land Is One of the Key Bottlenecks for Rolling Out Renewables”, Solar Thermal World, 22 November 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/access-to-land-is-one-of-the-key-bottlenecks-for-rolling-out-renewables, and from C. Travasaros, Prime Laser Tec. and Solar Heat Europe, cited in F. Stier, “European Council Speeds Up Permission Procedures But Only for Solar Systems on Buildings”, Solar Thermal World, 2 February 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/european-council-speeds-up-permission-procedures-but-only-for-solar-systems-on-buildings. One dilemma of solar thermal for district heating systems is that it must be located close to end-users, but there are challenges of finding available land in or near to urban centres; further, permitting is a serious bottleneck and burden in terms of time and money, all from C. Tavasaros, cited in Stier, “European Council Speeds…”, op. cit. this note; bottlenecks also from M. Berberich, Solites, cited in Epp, “Solar District Heating Solutions...”, op. cit. this note. Additional challenges, at least in Germany, include the research and development required for large-scale seasonal storage for really large networks, and the fact that some district heat networks operate at temperatures above 100°C, from B. Epp, “District Heating Has Never Had Such a High Significance in Germany”, Solar Thermal World, 28 April 2024, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/district-heating-has-never-had-such-a-high-significance-in-germany.83
  84. Figure of 20% (heat accounts for two-thirds of total industrial energy demand) and heavy reliance on fossil fuels from E. Bellevrat and K. West, “Clean and Efficient Heat for Industry”, International Energy Agency, 23 January 2018, https://www.iea.org/commentaries/clean-and-efficient-heat-for-industry; growing interest in solar thermal from M. Lehnis, “Sunshine, Mirrors and Steam: Meet the Company Quickly Decarbonizing the $444 Billion Industrial Heat Market”, Forbes, 14 December 2023, https://www.forbes.com/sites/mariannelehnis/2023/12/14/sunshine-mirrors-and-steam-meet-the-company-quickly-decarbonizing-the-444-billion-industrial-heat-market; heavy reliance on fossil fuels also from M. de Kempenaer et al., “Net-Zero Heat: Is It Too Hot to Handle?” McKinsey, 22 July 2022, https://www.mckinsey.com/capabilities/sustainability/our-insights/sustainability-blog/net-zero-heat-is-it-too-hot-to-handle.84
  85. J. Byström, Absolicon Solar Collector, personal communication with B. Epp, solrico, February 2022; energy price stability and volatility from S. Papa, Solar Heat Europe, personal communication with REN21, 2 May 2023. See also, for example, the following: B. Epp, “Concentrating Solar Heat Capacity Quadruples in 2022”, Solar Thermal World, 29 August 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/concentrating-solar-heat-capacity-quadruples-in-2022 (updated November 2022); B. Epp, “Big Solar Heat Deal in the Chilean Copper Sector Made Possible by Two People”, Solar Thermal World, 23 February 2024, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/big-solar-heat-deal-in-the-chilean-copper-sector-made-possible-by-two-people; B. Epp, “Decarbonization – A Winning Card for Industry”, Solar Thermal World, 2 November 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/decarbonization-a-winning-card-for-industry; GlassPoint, “GlassPoint Partners with MISA to Build a Solar Manufacturing Facility in Saudi Arabia”, 24 October 2023, https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/glasspoint-partners-with-misa-to-build-a-solar-manufacturing-facility-in-saudi-arabia-301966565.html; SolarPACES, “Ma'aden and GlassPoint Unveil Plans to Build Solar Thermal Technology Showcase”, 11 January 2023, https://www.solarpaces.org/glasspoint-and-saudis-maaden-unveil-9-tons-hr-solar-steam-demo-plan; energy price volatility and solar thermal solutions from Papa, op. cit. this note.85
  86. M. de Kempenaer et al., “Net-Zero Heat: Is It Too Hot to Handle?” McKinsey, 22 July 2022, https://www.mckinsey.com/capabilities/sustainability/our-insights/sustainability-blog/net-zero-heat-is-it-too-hot-to-handle. 86
  87. Temperature ranges from Solar Payback, “Suppliers of Turnkey Solar Process Heat Systems”, accessed 31 January 2023, https://www.solar-payback.com/suppliers; see also Solar Heat Europe, “Decarbonising Heat with Solar Thermal – Market Outlook 2022/2023”, p. 5, 2023, https://Solar Heateurope.eu/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/SHE-ST-MarketOutlook-2023-finalv.pdf; sorption chillers from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2022, Detailed Market Figures 2021, 2023 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, May 2023, pp. 8, 10, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide, p. 35; down to -40°C from hycool, “Some Facts on SHIP”, accessed 13 March 2024, https://hycool-project.eu/resources/resources-on-ship.87
  88. Data assessed from annual surveys (2017-2024) of the companies listed in Solar Payback, “Turnkey SHIP Supplier World Map”, cited in B. Epp, “The Netherlands and Spain Drive SHIP Market 2023”, Solar Thermal World, 28 March 2024, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/the-netherlands-and-spain-drive-ship-market-2023. The 116 systems completed during 2022 totalled 31 MWth of capacity, from idem. Capacity was calculated by Epp using the factor 0.7 kW/m2 for all collector types.88
  89. Data assessed from annual surveys (2017-2024) of the companies listed in Solar Payback, “Turnkey SHIP Supplier World Map”, cited in B. Epp, “The Netherlands and Spain Drive SHIP Market 2023”, Solar Thermal World, 28 March 2024, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/the-netherlands-and-spain-drive-ship-market-2023. Capacity was calculated by Epp using the factor 0.7 kW/m2 for all collector types. 89
  90. W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide; M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, March–May 2024.90
  91. solrico, in “Solar Industrial Heat Outlook 2023-2026”, cited in B. Epp, “Promising Solar Industrial Heat Outlook 2023-2026”, Solar Thermal World, 27 September 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/promising-solar-industrial-heat-outlook-2023-2026. 91
  92. W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide Edition 2023”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, May 2023, p. 21, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide; B. Epp, solrico, personal communication with REN21, 6 May 2024.92
  93. B. Epp, “The Netherlands and Spain Drive SHIP Market 2023”, Solar Thermal World, 28 March 2024, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/the-netherlands-and-spain-drive-ship-market-2023. Although most systems in operation use flat plate collectors, and they were used in almost half of new projects in 2023, their share of new collector area fell from 39% in 2022 to 12%. Around the world, the market is expanding for parabolic trough (38% of collector area in 2023), linear Fresnel and concentrating dish collectors, which combined accounted for 43% of the market across 10 projects, up from 16% in 2022, all from idem. In 2022, nine types were used, including flat plate, which accounted for 39% of newly installed collector area, followed by vacuum tube (24%), parabolic trough (12%), air collectors (11%), high temperature flat plate (6%), linear Fresnel (4%), photovoltaic-thermal (3%), unglazed polymer (1%) and concentrating dish (0.4%); concentrating collectors represented a combined 16% in nine projects; the substantial share of air collectors was due mainly to generous funding in Austria, Germany and Spain, all from B. Epp, “High Level of Dynamism on the SHIP World Market in 2022”, Solar Thermal World, 27 March 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/high-level-of-dynamism-on-the-ship-world-market-in-2022. 93
  94. Data for 2023 from B. Epp, “The Netherlands and Spain Drive SHIP Market 2023”, Solar Thermal World, 28 March 2024, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/the-netherlands-and-spain-drive-ship-market-2023. The rankings for 2022 were assessed by a survey among the companies listed in Solar Payback, “Suppliers of Turnkey Solar Process Heat Systems”, accessed 31 January 2023, https://www.solar-payback.com/suppliers, and cited in B. Epp, “High Level of Dynamism on the SHIP World Market in 2022”, Solar Thermal World, 27 March 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/high-level-of-dynamism-on-the-ship-world-market-in-2022. The leading markets for number of systems installed in 2022 are based on data assessed by a survey among the companies listed on the SHIP Supplier World Map in March/April 2022, from Solar Payback, “SHIP Supplier Map of Turnkey Solar Process Heat Systems”, April 2022, https://www.solar-payback.com/suppliers. China possibly under-reported for installations during 2022 (and 2021), from B. Epp, “High Level of Dynamism…”, op. cit. this note, and from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2022, Detailed Market Figures 2021, 2023 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, 2023, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide. The China Academy of Building Research reported that a total of 359 SHIP systems (256,000 m2) were added in 2021 alone; because detailed data are not available for 2021 or 2022, the systems are not included in data from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. this note, p. 26.94
  95. B. Epp, “The Netherlands and Spain Drive SHIP Market 2023”, Solar Thermal World, 28 March 2024, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/the-netherlands-and-spain-drive-ship-market-2023.95
  96. B. Epp, “The Netherlands and Spain Drive SHIP Market 2023”, Solar Thermal World, 28 March 2024, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/the-netherlands-and-spain-drive-ship-market-2023. Support systems in Europe include: Netherlands (Sustainable Energy Production and Climate Transition Incentive Scheme – SDE++); Germany (Energy Efficient Economy); France (Ademe), Austria (Climate and Energy Fund) and Spain (Thermal Energy Production grant scheme funded by the European Regional Development Fund), from idem.96
  97. Invest in Spain, “Heineken Opens Europe's Largest Solar Thermal Plant in Seville”, 5 October 2023, https://www.investinspain.org/content/icex-invest/en/noticias-main/2023/heineken.html; S. Djunisic, “Heineken, Engie Unveil 30-MW CSP Plant in Spain”, Renewables Now, 2 October 2023, https://renewablesnow.com/news/heineken-engie-unveil-30-mw-csp-plant-in-spain-835494; B. Epp, “Technical Tour to Europe's Largest Solar Industrial Heat Plant at Heineken Spain”, Solar Thermal World, 30 October 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/technical-tour-to-europes-largest-solar-industrial-heat-plant-at-heineken-spain; O. Haslam, “Lactalis Unveils Solar Thermal Power Plant for Sustainable Whey Production”, Nutra Ingredients, 5 January 2024, https://www.nutraingredients.com/Article/2024/01/05/Lactalis-unveils-solar-thermal-power-plant-for-sustainable-whey-production; J. Malaviya, “First Big Dish System Supplies Steam for a Hospital in India”, Solar Thermal World, 17 April 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/first-big-dish-system-supplies-steam-for-a-hospital-in-india. India was a strong SHIP market during 2017-2020 and dropped off after the expiration of a national incentive programme for concentrating heat in 2020, from B. Epp, “High Innovation Potential of Suppliers for Concentrating Heat Solutions”, Solar Thermal World, 8 June 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/high-innovation-potential-of-suppliers-for-concentrating-heat-solutions.97
  98. B. Epp, “Structural Changes in Solar Industrial Heat Supply Industry”, Solar Thermal World, 6 July 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/structural-changes-in-solar-industrial-heat-supply-industry. In addition, applying for government subsidies is slowing roll-out of projects from S. Papa and P. Dias, Solar Heat Europe, personal communication with REN21, May 2023.98
  99. Minimise risk from B. Epp, “Welcome to a New Year and Another Chance for Solar Heat to Get Big”, Solar Thermal World, 17 January 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/welcome-to-a-new-year-and-another-chance-for-solar-heat-to-get-big. Internal decarbonisation targets also have been important factors, from idem. Even where SHIP systems are very competitive with fossil fuels, such as in southern Spain, the lack of awareness about the benefits of solar heat remains a challenge. As of early 2023, one company in southern Spain offered heat for USD 16.6-22.1 (EUR 15-20) per MWh, which compares to gas at USD 88.3-99.3 (EUR 80-90) per MWh, from A.D. Rosell, “Heat Purchase Agreements on the Rise in Spain”, Solar Thermal World, 10 August 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/heat-purchase-agreements-on-the-rise-in-spain; GlassPoint, “GlassPoint Closes $8M Series A to Help Industry Meet Pressing Net-Zero Goals”, 31 July 2023, https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/glasspoint-closes-8m-series-a-to-help-industry-meet-pressing-net-zero-goals-301888678.html; heat purchase agreements increasingly common from solrico, in “Solar Industrial Heat Outlook 2023-2026”, cited in B. Epp, “Promising Solar Industrial Heat Outlook 2023-2026”, Solar Thermal World, 27 September 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/promising-solar-industrial-heat-outlook-2023-2026; B. Epp, “The Netherlands and Spain Drive SHIP Market 2023”, Solar Thermal World, 28 March 2024, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/the-netherlands-and-spain-drive-ship-market-2023. The share of capacity realised in 2023 under an energy service company model was 55% (and included the Heineken España plant), up from 2% in 2022 and 33% in 2021; turnkey delivery contracts accounted for the rest, from Invest in Spain, “Heineken Opens Europe's Largest Solar Thermal Plant in Seville”, 5 October 2023, https://www.investinspain.org/content/icex-invest/en/noticias-main/2023/heineken.html, and from Epp, “The Netherlands and Spain...”, op. cit. this note.99
  100. solrico, in “Solar Industrial Heat Outlook 2023-2026”, cited in B. Epp, “Promising Solar Industrial Heat Outlook 2023-2026”, Solar Thermal World, 27 September 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/promising-solar-industrial-heat-outlook-2023-2026; B. Epp, “The Netherlands and Spain Drive SHIP Market 2023”, Solar Thermal World, 28 March 2024, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/the-netherlands-and-spain-drive-ship-market-2023.100
  101. B. Epp, “Big Solar Heat Deal in the Chilean Copper Sector Made Possible by Two People”, Solar Thermal World, 23 February 2024, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/big-solar-heat-deal-in-the-chilean-copper-sector-made-possible-by-two-people. 101
  102. B. Epp, “Successes and Challenges on the SHIP World Market 2023”, Solar Thermal World, 9 April 2024, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/successes-and-challenges-on-the-ship-world-market-2023. 102
  103. Solrico survey, cited in B. Epp, “Successes and Challenges on the SHIP World Market 2023”, Solar Thermal World, 9 April 2024, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/successes-and-challenges-on-the-ship-world-market-2023.103
  104. B. Epp, “Successes and Challenges on the SHIP World Market 2023”, Solar Thermal World, 9 April 2024, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/successes-and-challenges-on-the-ship-world-market-2023.104
  105. B. Epp, “Successes and Challenges on the SHIP World Market 2023”, Solar Thermal World, 9 April 2024, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/successes-and-challenges-on-the-ship-world-market-2023.105
  106. Restart after liquidation from B. Epp, “New Glasspoint Announces First 1.5 GW Parabolic Trough Field”, Solar Thermal World, 10 June 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/new-glasspoint-announces-first-1-5-gw-parabolic-trough-field; more than half and energy-as-a-service model from GlassPoint, “GlassPoint Closes $8M Series A to Help Industry Meet Pressing Net-Zero Goals”, 31 July 2023, https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/glasspoint-closes-8m-series-a-to-help-industry-meet-pressing-net-zero-goals-301888678.html. 106
  107. Partnership and manufacturing facility from GlassPoint, “GlassPoint Partners with MISA to Build a Solar Manufacturing Facility in Saudi Arabia”, 24 October 2023, https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/glasspoint-partners-with-misa-to-build-a-solar-manufacturing-facility-in-saudi-arabia-301966565.html; broke ground and five times larger from M. Lehnis, “Sunshine, Mirrors and Steam: Meet the Company Quickly Decarbonizing the $444 Billion Industrial Heat Market”, Forbes, 14 December 2023, https://www.forbes.com/sites/mariannelehnis/2023/12/14/sunshine-mirrors-and-steam-meet-the-company-quickly-decarbonizing-the-444-billion-industrial-heat-market; B. Epp, “New Glasspoint Announces First 1.5 GW Parabolic Trough Field”, Solar Thermal World, 10 June 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/new-glasspoint-announces-first-1-5-gw-parabolic-trough-field; SolarPACES, “Ma'aden and GlassPoint Unveil Plans to Build Solar Thermal Technology Showcase”, 11 January 2023, https://www.solarpaces.org/glasspoint-and-saudis-maaden-unveil-9-tons-hr-solar-steam-demo-plan; Saudi Arabia aims for 50% of its electricity to come from renewable sources by 2030 and to achieve net zero by 2060, from GlassPoint, “GlassPoint Partners with...”, op. cit. this note. In addition, in 2023 GlassPoint closed a USD 8 million series A investment, which it will use to expand operations, from GlassPoint, “GlassPoint Closes $8M Series A to Help Industry Meet Pressing Net-Zero Goals”, 31 July 2023, https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/glasspoint-closes-8m-series-a-to-help-industry-meet-pressing-net-zero-goals-301888678.html. 107
  108. Heliovis from V. Lavillat, “Radically New Design of a Concentrating Collector in an Inflatable Tube”, Solar Thermal World, 21 August 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/radically-new-design-of-a-concentrating-collector-in-an-inflatable-tube; SolarSteam from V. Lavillat, “Advanced Solutions for Concentrating Solar in Extreme Environments”, Solar Thermal World, 24 May 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/advanced-solutions-for-concentrating-solar-in-extreme-environments. See also B. Epp, “New Dynamism on the Canadian Solar Thermal Market”, Solar Thermal World, 9 May 2024, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/new-dynamism-on-the-canadian-solar-thermal-market. 108
  109. See, for example, B. Epp with A.D. Rosell, “Storing High-Temperature Heat for Commercial Clients in Denmark, Norway and Belgium”, Solar Thermal World, 5 March 2024, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/storing-high-temperature-heat-for-commercial-clients-in-denmark-norway-and-belgium.109
  110. Figures of 30 and 12 from B. Epp, “Worldwide Overview of High-Temperature Energy Storage System Providers”, Solar Thermal World, 5 March 2024, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/worldwide-overview-of-high-temperature-energy-storage-system-providers; providing to meet rapidly expanding demand from B. Epp with A.D. Rosell, “Heat Storage Market Is Getting Hotter”, Solar Thermal World, 6 March 2024, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/heat-storage-market-is-getting-hotter. The United States leads with 10 high-temperature storage providers, thanks to US Department of Energy funding and success at raising venture capital; Germany has 5 firms and leads in Europe, which has a total at least 17 firms, from Epp, “Worldwide Overview…”, op. cit. this note.110
  111. A few hours to several days from Annelies Vandersickel, German Aerospace Center (DLR), in B. Epp, “‘There Is a Great Deal of Experience with Solid-Media High-Temperature Storages'”, Solar Thermal World, 4 March 2024, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/there-is-a-great-deal-of-experience-with-solid-media-high-temperature-storages; surplus electricity and 24-hour heat from B. Epp, “Worldwide Overview of High-Temperature Energy Storage System Providers”, Solar Thermal World, 5 March 2024, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/worldwide-overview-of-high-temperature-energy-storage-system-providers. Thermal storage using solid media has been used since the 1860s by industry, particularly steelworks (using ceramic bricks), from Vandersickel, op. cit. this note. Up to 2,000°C and solid materials from Epp, op. cit. this note.111
  112. B. Epp with A.D. Rosell, “Storing High-Temperature Heat for Commercial Clients in Denmark, Norway and Belgium”, Solar Thermal World, 5 March 2024, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/storing-high-temperature-heat-for-commercial-clients-in-denmark-norway-and-belgium. As of early 2024, six companies (total) had put commercial storage into operation – Brenmiller (Israel), Eco-Tech Ceram (France), Energynest and Kyoto Group (both Norway), Polar Night Energy (Finland) and Rondo Energy (United States) – from B. Epp, solrico, personal communication with REN21, 12 March 2024.112
  113. W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide Edition 2023”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, May 2023, p. 27, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide; see also B. Epp, “PVT Big Solar Projects for Industrial Clients in Austria”, Solar Thermal World, 15 March 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/pvt-big-solar-projects-for-industrial-clients-in-austria; description of PVT systems from B. Epp, “PVT Flagship Projects in Four Countries”, Solar Thermal World, 2 February 2024, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/pvt-flagship-projects-in-four-countries. 113
  114. W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide Edition 2023”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, May 2023, p. 27, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide; for use with heat pumps, see also B. Epp, “‘PVT Heat Pump Systems Will Become Standard in the Netherlands'”, Solar Thermal World, 1 March 2024, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/pvt-heat-pump-systems-will-become-standard-in-the-netherlands.114
  115. W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2022, Detailed Market Figures 2021, 2023 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, May 2023, pp. 9, 30, 31, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide. Global growth averaged 9% annually between 2017 and 2020, and was 13% in 2021, from idem.115
  116. Down 52% and reasons for decline in 2022 from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2022, Detailed Market Figures 2021, 2023 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme (IEA SHC), May 2023, pp. 30, 31, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide. (Elsewhere in the report, the market was down 51%, from idem, p. 9). Contracted further in 2023 based on additions in 2022 amounting to 42.4 MWth and 21.7 MWpeak, from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, IEA SHC, 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide, and on additions in 2023 from idem, and from M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, 6 May 2024. Around 42.4 MWth / 21.7 MWpeak was installed in 2022, bringing total global thermal capacity to 789 MWth and power capacity to 276 MWpeak in 1,524,945 m2 of collector area at the end of 2022, with the majority in Europe, from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide”, 2023, op. cit. this note, pp. 9, 27. 116
  117. B. Epp, “PVT Flagship Projects in Four Countries”, Solar Thermal World, 2 February 2024, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/pvt-flagship-projects-in-four-countries; see also A.D. Rosell, “Spain's Solar Thermal Market Impacted by Various New Policies”, Solar Thermal World, 23 June 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/spains-solar-thermal-market-impacted-by-various-new-policies.117
  118. Cumulative global PVT collector area at the end of 2023 was 1,589,553 m² (822 MWth and 292 MWpeak), from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2023, Detailed Market Figures 2022, 2024 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme (IEA SHC), 2024, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide, and from M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies, personal communication with REN21, March–May 2024; data for 2017 from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2022, Detailed Market Figures 2021, 2023 Edition”, IEA SHC, May 2023, pp. 30, 31, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide. Just over 1 million m2 was in operation worldwide in 2017, from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, idem, and an estimated 1,524,945 m² (789 MWth, 276 MWpeak) was operating by the end of 2022, from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide”, 2024, op. cit. this note.118
  119. W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, ““Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2022, Detailed Market Figures 2021, 2023 Edition”, International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, May 2023, p. 27, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide.119
  120. A.D. Rosell, “Spain's Solar Thermal Market Impacted by Various New Policies”, Solar Thermal World, 23 June 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/spains-solar-thermal-market-impacted-by-various-new-policies.120
  121. B. Epp, “Growing Production Capacities of PVT Collectors in Europe”, Solar Thermal World, 1 February 2024, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/growing-production-capacities-of-pvt-collectors-in-europe. Sunmaxx PVT's plant has capacity for 120 units (50 MW-electric) per year, from idem.121